Exam Notes on Philippine-American War
Andres Bonifacio's Execution and the Divide Among Revolutionaries
Andres Bonifacio's execution was attributed to treason and inciting sedition after the Tejeros Convention. There are accounts suggesting Bonifacio might have been killed during his arrest, a theory supported by historian Dr. Luis Camara Dery, citing an epitaph indicating his death occurred between April 29 (or 26) and May 10. This challenges the accepted narrative of his execution on May 10.
Emilio Aguinaldo, born on March 22, 1869, and died on February 6 at 94, came from a prominent family in Cavite. He studied at Legrand and served as a governor, similar to Bonifacio. A significant ideological gap existed between Bonifacio's indigenous revolutionary ideas and Aguinaldo's Western-influenced concepts rooted in liberty, equality, and fraternity from the French Revolution. Bonifacio envisioned a Philippines for all, whereas Aguinaldo had a more elitist approach. This divide partly explains why Aguinaldo entered into a truce with the Spaniards.
The Evolution of Filipino Identity and the Pact of Biak-na-Bato
The concept of Filipinos began to expand during this period, including mestizos and Indios, largely influenced by Rizal and Aguinaldo.
The initial success in establishing a nation was disrupted by several events, including the Pact of Biak-na-Bato. This agreement involved:
Payment of Mexican dollars to Filipinos in installments.
An initial payment of dollars and surrender of arms.
A second installment of dollars for another arms.
An additional dollars for non-combatants.
Aguinaldo and others were to go into exile in Hong Kong.
Pangilinan was involved in handling these funds in Hong Kong, but this arrangement was disrupted by the USS Maine incident on February 15, 1898, in Havana, Cuba, which led to the Spanish-American War after sensationalized news reports.
Aguinaldo's Negotiations and the Declaration of Independence
On May 19, 1898, controversial negotiations took place in Singapore involving Aguinaldo, American Consul Pratt, and Commodore Dewey. Aguinaldo was allegedly promised support, which was later denied by the Americans. Some historians view Aguinaldo as naive for believing in these promises.
Despite Aguinaldo's negotiations, some Filipino generals continued fighting the Spaniards. On June 12, 1898, the Philippines declared its independence, aiming to demonstrate their capacity for self-governance. However, the Americans' imperialistic intentions were evident. The declaration was ratified on August 1. On August 13, Manila was captured by American forces, an event ironically celebrated as a public holiday, marking the start of American occupation.
Treaty of Paris and American Policy
On December 10, 1898, the Treaty of Paris was signed, with the Philippines being sold to the U.S. for million dollars. On December 21, 1898, the U.S. declared a policy of benevolent assimilation.
The First Philippine Commission and the Shift to English
On January 20, the Jacob Schurman Commission, the first Philippine Commission, was established to assess the Philippines' future. They determined that the Philippines was not ready for self-governance, leading to the widespread adoption of English as the language of instruction. English then became the language of the educated Filipinos under American tutelage.
The Philippine-American War and Symbolic Violence
On January 23, 1899, the First Philippine Republic was inaugurated, two days after the ratification of the Malolos Constitution. However, on February 4, 1899, conflict erupted between Filipino and American forces.
The Americans framed the conflict as a Philippine Insurrection rather than a war to justify harsh measures against Filipinos. This labeling is an example of symbolic violence which can translate into actual violence.
As defined by French sociologist Pierre Bourdieu, symbolic violence involves the power of labeling, where being tagged as an enemy justifies harsh actions. The Filipinos officially declared war against the U.S. on June 2, 1899.
The First Shot and Key Battles
The first shot of the Philippine-American War was fired on the night of February 4, 1899, at the corner of Sociego and Silencio Streets in Santa Mesa by Private William Grayson of the Nebraska Volunteer Regiment, against Filipino troops under Colonel Luciano San Miguel.
Key battles included the defense of Manila, divided into zones. One Filipino victory was the Battle of San Mateo, where the Filipinos killed American General Henry Lawton.
Debates Over Terminology and Historical Perspective
There are ongoing debates regarding the term used for the conflict. Some historians prefer "Philippine War" or “Filipino-American War” to emphasize the Philippine perspective, while others consider it a Philippine Insurrection. From the Americans perspective it was an insurrection to downplay it's significance.
After the official end of the Philippine-American War in 1902, the Moro Wars continued until 1913. Some historians also include millenarian groups and other resistance movements up to 1916 as part of the broader conflict.
In 1998, the American Library of Congress recognized the Philippine-American War after nearly a century of neglect, even within the Philippines. It is often a largely forgotten event.
American Imperialism and Manifest Destiny
American involvement in the Philippines was driven by economic interests and trade and influenced by the concept of Manifest Destiny and the "white man's burden," as articulated in Rudyard Kipling's poem. This ideology justified American expansion and colonization.
Cultural and Social Impact
America expanded westward, subjugating indigenous populations. Manhood was equated with being civilized, exemplified by physical appearances and romanticized depictions of the Philippines in American media. However, Filipinos were often vilified in political cartoons.
Photography from this period captured cultural aspects, with neutral photos aiming to depict Filipinos as a unified nation. Baseball and other cultural elements were used to win hearts and minds.
Conclusion
The Philippine nation's progress was disrupted by the arrival of the Americans, who, despite allowing Filipinos to govern, significantly influenced Filipino nationalism and culture. The long-lasting soft power of American influence includes the adoption of English and a positive perception of American culture.
The Philippine-American War is a crucial part of Philippine history, highlighting the complexities of nation-building and foreign influence.