Occurs when the same person, household, location, or target experiences more than one criminal incident within a defined time‐span.
Central insight: Past victimisation is the single best predictor of future victimisation.
Reasons offered across the literature (implied by the final slide’s “Why?” cue):
Offenders learn that the target is vulnerable, lucrative, or poorly protected.
Victims may lack resources or knowledge to upgrade security quickly.
Routine Activities / Lifestyle factors remain unchanged after the first incident.
Underlying social or environmental conditions (e.g., neighbourhood disorder) remain constant.
Empirical Evidence: US Youth (Lauritsen & Quinet, 1995)
Repeat Theft Victimisation – National Youth Survey
Distribution of self-reported theft incidents in the last year:
0 thefts: 50.3\%
1 theft: 20.6\%
2 thefts: 13.5\%
3 thefts: 6.2\%
4 thefts: 3.4\%
\ge 4 thefts: 5.9\%
Take-away: Nearly half of all youth theft victims suffered two or more events.
Repeat Assault Victimisation – National Youth Survey
Distribution of self-reported assaults in the last year:
0 assaults: 68.9\%
1 assault: 12.9\%
2 assaults: 8.2\%
3 assaults: 2.9\%
4 assaults: 2.0\%
\ge 4 assaults: 5.2\%
Interpretation: Although most youths report no assault, a small fraction accumulate a large share of incidents.
Empirical Evidence: Australia
Household Burglary – South Australia (Holder, 1997)
16\%{-}20\% of burglary victims experience exactly two incidents within 12 months.
4.7\% experience three or more burglaries in the same period.
>\frac{1}{3} of repeat burglaries occur within one month of the initial burglary.
Jurisdictional comparison: South Australia = lowest RV rate; Queensland = highest.
Personal Crime & Domestic Violence (Holder, 1997)
Probability of a second personal crime is \approx 8 times higher for those already victimised than for people with no prior victimisation.
Domestic violence:
≈50\% of women experiencing DV report more than one incident.
51.6\% of Australian women report >1 incident of physical or sexual violence after age 15.
Risk Factors for Repeat Burglary Victimisation (Holder, 1997)
Household with a single adult (i.e., single-parent or solo occupant).
Rental status rather than ownership.
Occupancy
Household head age
The combination of these factors heightens exposure and decreases guardianship, making swift repeat attacks more likely.
Australian Repeat Victimisation – 1-Year Summary
Most victims (majority) are victimised only once during a given year.
A small minority experience multiple incidents, yet they account for a disproportionate share of total crime counts.
Strongest predictor of future victimisation = prior victimisation.
Theoretical Explanations & Mechanisms (linking to prior criminological frameworks)
Boost Explanation: Successful offenders “boost” confidence; they return because they already know the location’s layout, escape routes, and security deficits.
Flag Explanation: Characteristics of the target itself (e.g., accessibility, visibility) “flag” it as attractive to many different offenders.
Lifestyle/Routine Activity Theory: Without changes in motivated offenders, suitable targets, or capable guardians, risk remains elevated.
Victim-offender overlap (especially for youth assaults): Individuals engaged in risky routines may both offend and be victimised repeatedly.
Practical & Policy Implications
Time-critical prevention: Because >33\% of repeat burglaries occur within one month, rapid target‐hardening (locks, alarms, community alerts) right after the first offence is essential.
Risk mapping & resource allocation: Police can prioritise households/people with recent victimisation for extra patrols or support.
Victim support services: Counseling, safety planning, and domestic violence interventions must acknowledge the high likelihood of recurrence.
Housing policy: Improve security standards for rental properties; encourage landlords to invest in better locks and lighting.
Education & outreach: Inform victims that they face elevated risk; provide concrete steps to mitigate.
Key Takeaways & Study Tips
Memorise the percentage distributions for US youth theft & assault and SA burglary.
Remember the risk ratio (×8) for a second personal crime in Australia.
Be able to explain the difference between “boost” and “flag” perspectives.
Link repeat victimisation to Routine Activity Theory: offenders, targets, guardians.
For exams, can be useful to cite the Holder (1997) and Lauritsen & Quinet (1995) studies by name and year.
Think critically about policy timing—interventions are most effective immediately after a first incident.