Unit 7: Shifting State Power After 1900

Global Geopolitics and the Shift of State Power (1900–Present)

• At the opening of the 20th century, Western powers (primarily Europe and the United States) dominated the global balance of power.
• By the end of the century, this balance shifted significantly as many maritime and land-based empires collapsed, giving rise to new states through revolution and decolonization.
• The period starting in 1900 is defined by world wars, economic depressions, and widespread movements for independence.

The Internal and External Collapse of the Ottoman Empire

• Historical Context: Prior to its collapse, the Ottoman Empire was famously known as the "sick man of Europe" due to its long-term decline and inability to compete with industrializing Western powers.
• Early Reform Efforts: The empire attempted defensive industrialization and modernization through the Tanzimat reforms in the 19th century, but these efforts were insufficient to stabilize the state.
• The Young Ottomans:     * This group was composed of individuals educated in Western ideas.     * They advocated for significant political changes to align the Ottoman Empire with democratic Western powers.     * Briefly, the authoritarian Sultan agreed to their demands, allowing for a constitution and the creation of a parliament.     * Return to Authoritarianism: The Sultan quickly reverted to dictatorial rule using the threat of war from Russia as a pretext to dissolve the new reforms and consolidate power.
• The Young Turks:     * Emerging in response to the revival of authoritarianism, this reform-minded group sought a complete modernization based on the model of Western European nations.     * They were driven by intense nationalism, envisioning the Ottoman state as fundamentally "Turkic," which marginalized and excluded the empire's diverse ethnic minorities.     * The Revolution of 1908: The Young Turks successfully overthrew the Sultan and seized power, implementing a series of radical reforms.     * Specific Modernization Reforms:         * Secularization of schools and the legal code.         * The establishment of political elections.         * The imposition of the Turkish language as the official language of the empire.
• Consequences of Nationalism: The nationalistic policies of The Young Turks alienated minorities, particularly the Arabs. This sparked Arab nationalism, further fracturing the empire's internal cohesion.
• Final Collapse: Following the conclusion of World War I, the "dead man of Europe" (formerly the sick man) was dismantled by victorious Allied powers and carved into several independent states.

The Russian Empire and the Rise of the Soviet Union

• Industrialization Patterns: Russia began industrializing late in the 19th century under the absolute authority of Czars Alexander II and Nicholas II. This process was state-sponsored rather than private.
• Rising Internal Tensions:     * The emerging middle class created by industrialization resented the lack of political representation and demanded a voice in government.     * The working class suffered from the brutal conditions and low wages associated with rapid, state-mandated industrial growth.
• The Revolution of 1905:     * Widespread grievances boiled over into a revolution that was initially suppressed by Czar Nicholas II with brutal force.     * Limited Concessions: Nicholas II eventually accommodated some demands by introducing a constitution and legalizing political parties and labor unions.     * Stagnation: The Czar largely ignored these reforms once the immediate threat subsided, continuing to rule as an absolute dictator.
• The Revolution of 1917:     * The strains of World War I, combined with the failures of industrialization and political rigidity, led to a second, successful revolution.     * The Bolsheviks: This Marxist political group was led by the visionary Vladimir Lenin.     * Outcome: Lenin and the Bolsheviks seized power, abolished the monarchy, and established the world's first communist state, known as the Soviet Union.

The Fall of the Qing Dynasty and the End of Imperial China

• 19th-Century Decline: China faced a series of internal and external disasters that weakened the Qing Dynasty's grip on power.
• Internal Factors: The Taiping Rebellion was an exceedingly destructive conflict that cost millions of lives and enormous financial resources, leaving the state depopulated and bankrupt.
• External Factors:     * China lost the Opium Wars to Western powers and the Sino-Japanese War to Japan.     * These losses highlighted the failure of China’s "half-baked" industrialization attempts compared to the fully industrialized powers to their east and west.
• The Boxer Rebellion:     * The "Society of Righteous and Harmonious Fists" (Boxers) led an insurrection against the Qing authorities, whom they viewed as foreigners (the Qing were Manchu, not Han Chinese).     * Because the Qing were "broke as a joke," British, French, and Japanese troops were sent to put down the rebellion.     * The foreign powers used their intervention to impose even further economic and political demands on the weakened China.
• The Revolution of 1911:     * A revolutionary movement led by the Western-educated Sun Yat-sen gained enough momentum to force the abdication of the Qing Emperor.     * This event marked the end of over 2,000 years of imperial rule in China.
• Shift to Communism: While Sun Yat-sen established a provisional government, it was destabilized by power struggles and civil war. Eventually, China emerged as a communist state under the leadership of Mao Zedong.

The Mexican Revolution and Constitutional Reform

• Pre-Revolutionary Context: In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, Mexico was ruled by the dictator Porfirio Diaz.
• Catalyst for Change: Diaz's policies favored elites and foreign investors, angering almost every social class. His chief rival, Francisco Madero, was elected in 1910 but was assassinated two years later in 1912.
• A Decade of Civil War:     * Mexico descended into ten years of conflict involving various factions.     * Massive peasant armies were led by charismatic figures Pancho Villa and Emiliano Zapata.     * Unlike the Bolsheviks in Russia, these peasant leaders were not successful in seizing and maintaining central state power.
• The 1917 Constitution:     * The revolution resulted in Mexico becoming a Republic with a new constitution drafted in 1917.     * Key Reforms Included:         1. Universal male suffrage.         2. Establishment of minimum wages for workers.         3. The decoupling of the Catholic Church from political and economic power.
• Scope and Impact: While the Russian and Chinese revolutions had massive international geopolitical effects, the Mexican Revolution remained largely confined to Mexico’s internal borders.