Congress: The Senate and the House of Representatives
Congress: The Senate and the House of Representatives
Module 2.1 Congress, Outline/Study Guide
Material sourced from the AP Curriculum Guide and Bianco and Canon, Chapter 4.
Organized with assistance from Google Gemini.
For internal use at Dana Hall School only.
TOPIC 2.1: Congress: The Senate and the House of Representatives
Learning Objective: LO 2.1.A
Describe the different structures, powers, and functions of each house of Congress.
Essential Knowledge:
Bicameralism and Representation (EK 2.1.A.1):
Republicanism manifests in Congress's bicameral structure.
The Senate represents states equally.
The House of Representatives represents the people.
Chamber Size and Debate Formality (EK 2.1.A.2):
House: 435 members; debates are more formal.
Senate: 100 members; debates are less formal.
Political Parties and Terms (EK 2.1.A.3):
Political interactions are influenced by the two-party system and differing term lengths.
All House members are elected every two years.
One-third of the Senate is elected every two years, ensuring a continuous legislative body.
Enumerated and Implied Powers (EK 2.1.A.4):
Congress engages in public policy via:
i. Passing a federal budget, raising money through taxes, borrowing, and coining currency.
ii. Declaring war and allocating funds for the armed forces.
iii. Setting naturalization processes.
iv. Regulating interstate commerce.
v. Creating federal courts and defining their jurisdictions.
vi. Enacting legislation via the necessary and proper clause.
vii. Overseeing the executive branch and its agencies.
TOPIC 2.2: Structures, Powers, and Functions of Congress
Learning Objective: LO 2.2.A
Explain how the structure, powers, and functions of both houses of Congress affect the policymaking process.
Essential Knowledge:
Design Differences (EK 2.2.A.1):
The distinct structures and powers of the Senate and House influence the legislative process.
Committees (EK 2.2.A.2):
Bills are referred to committees in both chambers, where hearings are conducted, debates occur, and bills are marked up.
Majority political party determines committee leadership.
Chamber-Specific Rules and Procedures (EK 2.2.A.3):
House Procedures:
The Speaker, elected by the majority, leads legislative work.
All revenue bills must originate in the House.
The Rules Committee sets debate rules.
A Committee of the Whole can expedite debate.
Discharge petitions can bring bills to the floor, although rare.
Senate Procedures:
Bills often reach the floor via unanimous consent.
Senators can request holds to obstruct floor votes.
Filibusters can prolong debates, with cloture motions used to conclude discussions.
Conference Committee:
Reconciles differences when both chambers pass differing versions of the same bill.
Budgeting (EK 2.2.A.4):
Congress must create budgets covering mandatory and discretionary expenditures.
i. Mandatory spending includes legally required programs (e.g., Social Security, Medicare, Medicaid).
ii. Discretionary spending involves annual appropriations for areas like defense, education, and infrastructure.As entitlement costs rise, discretionary spending may decline unless revenues or budget deficits increase.
Effects on Legislative Process (EK 2.2.A.5):
Pork-barrel legislation: funding for local projects within larger bills impacts legislative dynamics.
Logrolling: exchanging political favors, such as trading votes, influences legislative actions.
TOPIC 2.3: Congressional Behavior
Learning Objective: LO 2.3.A
Explain how congressional behavior is influenced by election processes, partisanship, and divided government.
Essential Knowledge:
Partisanship and Gridlock (EK 2.3.A.1):
Ideological divides diminish governing efficiency.
Partisan voting and polarization lead to legislative gridlock (an impasse in lawmaking due to consensus breakdown).
Elections and Representation (EK 2.3.A.2):
Issues of gerrymandering, redistricting, and representation disparities have been addressed through Supreme Court cases supporting equal protection for redistricting challenges.
Divided Government (EK 2.3.A.3):
Divided government occurs when one party controls the presidency and at least one chamber of Congress, intensifying partisanship.
Such a scenario may lead Congress members to oppose presidential initiatives, especially from a lame duck president.
Representative Roles (EK 2.3.A.4):
Trustee: Votes based on personal judgment and knowledge.
Delegate: Represents constituents' direct interests.
Politico: Combines trustee and delegate roles based on the issue context.
Chapter 4: Congress (Bianco and Canon)
Overview
The chapter elucidates Congress's role, constituent representation, and the legislative process.
Congress and the People
The primary goal here is to explore how Congress members represent constituents and how elections hold them accountable.
Constitutional Place of Congress
Congress, termed the "first branch," wields extensive enumerated powers.
It operates under a bicameral system featuring two chambers:
House of Representatives: Members serve two-year terms, maintaining closeness to the public.
Senate: Members enjoy six-year terms, fostering a degree of distance from immediate public opinion.
It's vital for members to address both their constituencies and national interests.
The Permanent Campaign
Describes the ongoing nature of political campaigning for reelection, often facilitated by costly consultants.
A common tactic involves securing localized projects (pork-barrel policies) which benefit specific groups (e.g., infrastructure improvements).
Representation
Representation types:
Descriptive Representation: whether a member reflects constituents' demographics.
Substantive Representation: alignment with constituents' interests.
Redistricting
Redrawing congressional district lines post-apportionment to maintain equal population among districts.
Models of representation include:
Trustee: Votes against constituent wishes for broader benefit.
Delegate: Advocates for constituents' direct preferences.
Politico: Alternates roles depending on the situation.
In a 2014 survey, 80% of Americans preferred representatives vote based on their constituents' desires versus personal convictions (17%).
Reelection Motivation and Incumbency
Reelection is a primary motivation for Congress members.
They promote the reelection through:
Advertising: Raising public awareness positively.
Credit Claiming: Taking ownership of successful projects and casework.
Position Taking: Making claims publicly.
The incumbency advantage often leads to high reelection rates, with incumbents generally outspending their challengers at ratios of 3:1.
Historically, the House experiences higher reelection rates than the Senate.
Constituency service, like spending weekends in their home districts (referred to as the \"Tuesday-to-Thursday club\"), yields voter satisfaction.
Redistricting and Gerrymandering
Apportionment: Allocating House seats to states based on census-derived population shifts.
Gerrymandering: Manipulating district lines for political gain:
Partisan Gerrymanders: Favor one party over another.
Racial Gerrymanders: Adjust representation based on racial demographics.
Responsiveness and Responsibility
Legislators face dual roles in national policy-making and local interest balance.
Gridlock: A stalemate in legislative progress due to partisan discord.
The Structure of Congress
Examination of how party dynamics, committee systems, and staff efficiency enable congressional functions.
Informal Structure (Norms)
Non-official processes that govern interactions:
Universalism: Dispensing benefits broadly across districts and states.
Logrolling: Mutual voting agreements on bills.
Earmarks: Attached funding for local projects in larger bills.
Specialization: Developing expertise in specific areas.
Seniority: Committee chairmanship based on tenure.
Formal Structures
Codified procedures that address collective action problems:
Parties and party leadership.
Committees.
Staff.
Party Leadership
Speaker of the House: Majority party leader.
Whip System (House): Facilitates information sharing and party unity.
Minority Leader: Guide for the minority party in the House and Senate.
President pro tempore (Senate): Symbolic leader; generally the senior majority member; rarely presides; primarily to break ties.
Party Cohesion
Party unity has increased with more ideological polarization in Congress over the last seven decades.
Party votes occur when majorities from one party vote against the other.
The Committee System
Committees play a pivotal role in legislative processes:
Standing Committee: Permanent committee with significant authority.
Select Committee: Temporary, focusing on specific issues.
Joint Committee: Mixed membership from both houses, limited authority.
Conference Committee: Resolves discrepancies in legislation between chambers.
Committee membership attracts through two theories:
Distributive Theory: Members join relevant committees to support legislation beneficial to their districts.
Informational Theory: Selection based on areas of expertise.
How a Bill Becomes a Law
To become law, a bill must pass both chambers in identical form and receive presidential approval.
Legislative process outline:
Bill introduction.
Subcommittee and committee activities.
Floor action in the first chamber.
Committee and floor work in the second chamber.
Conference committee reconciliation of differences.
Final approval from both chambers.
Presidential signature or veto.
If vetoed, Congress might override with a two-thirds majority vote in both chambers.
Special Legislation Types and Vetoes
Pocket Veto: A president’s inaction on a bill during the last ten days of a legislative session.
Omnibus Legislation: Covers multiple subjects or programs in a singular bill.
Other legislative types: Simple, Concurrent, and Joint resolutions.
House vs. Senate
The House Rules Committee can set:
Open rules: Allowing relevant amendments.
Closed rules: Prohibiting amendments.
Modified rules: Allowing some amendments while forbidding others.
The Senate may employ reconciliation to bypass filibusters.
Oversight
Congress conducts oversight to ensure laws are implemented as intended:
Power of the Purse: Denying funding to non-compliant agencies.
Hearings: Scrutinizing bureaucracy actions.
Advice and Consent (Senate only): Senate approval required for certain presidential appointments and treaty ratifications.
Key Learning Outcomes Summarization
LO 2.1.A: Structures, powers, and functions of Congress impact policymaking processes fundamentally.
EK 2.1.A.1 - 2.1.A.4: Defined powers underline the legislative duties and roles of Congress in relation to representation and lawmaking.
LO 2.2.A and EK 2.2.A.1 - 2.2.A.5: Illustrates legislative process complexities influenced by chamber designs, rules, budgeting implications, and political dynamics.
LO 2.3.A and EK 2.3.A.1 - 2.3.A.4: Highlights the effects of election processes, partisanship, and individual representative roles on congressional behavior and policymaking dynamics.