AP Gov Unit 3 Test Elections, Campaigns and Interest Groups
Interest Groups
The main idea: interest groups advocate for public policy, influencing congress, bureaucracy, and legislation. Examples include the AFL-CIO, U.S. Chamber Of Commerce, NAACP, and NRA. Lobbyists meet with government officials to promote policies. Interest groups can educate voters, provide expert opinions, and support candidates. However, they may also lead to disproportionate influence and benefit certain industries.
• An interest group is an organized body of individuals with shared goals who try to influence government policy. These activities are protected by the Constitution
● the iron triangle
○ How different parties influence each other
■ Give electoral support to a member of congress by getting its members to go out and vote for that member, advertise, Gigi no direct financial support. In exchange they may receive friendly legislation and oversight.
■ That member may want to hang out with lobbyists from that interest group Lobbying - meet with congress people or staff of congresspeople and try to influence the types of bills that are introduced to congress for considerations and how various members should vote for those bills
● bureaucracy runs the government
○ They have control of regulations, contracts, etc
■ So they are of interest to interest groups
Competing policy making interests: There are many competing interest groups, and they can take a variety of forms, but all seek to influence public policy in favor of the needs of their constituents. Not all interest groups have an equal impact on policy, however, as some have more funds, greater access to decision-makers, and more committed members.
• American society contains a vast array of interest groups, which have grown dramatically in number since the 1960s. Traditional occupational groups have been supplanted by an increase in public interest groups and lobbying operations sponsored by corporations and state and local government bodies. Moreover, policy making now takes place in an often more complex and conflictual group environment
than in the recent past
• Interest groups may represent very specific or more general interests, and educate voters and office holders, conduct lobbying, draft legislation, and mobilize membership to apply pressure on and work with legislators and government agencies.
• The influence of individual interest groups depends on such factors as the nature of the group’s membership, its financial and leadership resources, its prestige and status, and government structure, rules, and procedures.
• Groups try to influence any branch or level of government that they believe will respond to their concerns. The tactics used by interest groups include direct and grassroots lobbying, PAC contributions and other forms of electoral support, efforts to shape public opinion, and demonstrations and protests.
• Interest groups are linkage institutions as they supplement the formal and geographic system of congressional representation by providing citizens with an informal means of
influencing government. Not all Americans are equally represented by the interest group system. Although every American is free to organize and participate in interest activity, the people most likely to participate are the better educated and those financial resources
Important terms:
“Free Rider” problem - a problem of group behavior that occurs when an individual can receive a public benefit without making a personal contribution of money or effort. For example, a person might listen to public radio but never contribute to the station, assuming that other donors will pay to keep it operating.
Interest group - a formal or informal association of people seeking to influence governmental policy in favor of their interests; interest groups may represent social causes, economic and sopórtate interests, or religious and ideological interests.
Iron triangle - a longstanding, mutually-beneficial relationship between an interest group, congressional committee, and bureaucratic agency devoted to similar issues; for example, the American Association of Retired Persons, the congressional Subcommittee on Aging, and the Social Security Administration all work closely together on issues related to senior citizens.
Issue network - a group of individuals, public officials, and interest groups that form around a particular issue, usually a proposed public policy that they wish to support or defeat.
Lobbying - seeking to influence a public official on an issue; an interest group with a particular agenda may be known as its “lobby: for example “the tobacco lobby”
Elections and Campaigns
The main idea: climate change policy involves various groups influencing different stages of the policy process, social movements push for action, interest groups contribute to policy formation, political parties play a role in policy legislation, and bureaucratic agencies implement the policies. All groups participate in evaluating the policy’s effectiveness, leading to potential adjustments or new policies.
Money talks, but even groups with very deep pockets don’t get their way all of the time. In the scrum of public policy, interest groups may meet with many obstacles: opposing forces that favor different policy solutions, elected officials whose constituents will not reward them for backing a controversial issue, or budget limitations just to name a few.
Groups influencing policy outcomes
● political parties
● Interest groups
● Bureaucratic agencies
● Social movements
Policy process model
How a problem is identified and addressed through a policy solution
1. agenda setting - social movements
2. Policy formation - interest groups
3. Policy legitimation - political parties, bureaucratic agencies
4. Policy implementation - bureaucratic agencies, interest groups
5. Policy and program evaluation - social movements
6. Policy change - everyone
Important terms
Direct lobbying - interest groups’ attempts to influence policy by speaking directly with bureaucrats or elected officials
Inside strategies - interest groups attempt to influence policy by working within Washington DC. This includes strategies like direct lobbying, drafting pieces of legislation for elected officials, and suing the government.
Outside strategies -
political action committees (PACs) - Registered fundraising committees that donate money on behalf of interest groups. Super PACs are highly-funded PACs, whose numbers have grown following a Supreme Court ruling permitting unlimited spending by corporations and labor unions in federal elections.
salience - The degree to which the general public is aware of a policy issue. Policymakers are less likely to accommodate the demands of interest groups on issues with high salience, like gun rights or abortion rights, as they risk alienating voters.
social movements - Groups that work to bring about change in society, such as the Civil Rights Movement or the Environmental Movement; these groups support policies and elected officials that align with their beliefs.
Interest groups' attempts to influence policy outside of Washington DC, by
using strategies like campaign contributions, media coverage, or encouraging constituents to
contact their elected officials.
protest movement - A group that brings attention to a social problem through public
demonstrations or other forms of direct action.
single-issue group - An interest group devoted to one particular issue rather than a larger
category of interests; for example, EMILY’s List supports pro-choice female candidates, and the
National Rifle Association (NRA) opposes gun regulations.
Interest groups and the policy process:
There are many types of interest groups and many ways those groups can influence policy. Although some interest groups donate the majority of the money they raise directly to candidates' campaigns, many choose to spend their funds on mailers, TV commercials, and other advertisements to spread awareness about an issue. Others focus on recruiting future candidates or passing ballot measures at the state level. Interest groups may also choose to mobilize their resources in different steps of the policy process. Some groups may work to identify and frame problems, while others may direct their resources toward blocking the implementation of a policy.
ELECTING A PRESIDENT
The main idea: The incumbent advantage refers to the edge a sitting president has in elections. Over the last 100 years, incumbents have won more than 80% of the time. Factors contributing to this advantage include public familiarity, increased media exposure, experience in office, and patriotism during crises.
Incumbent advantage
- the person who is already in power usually has advantage in elections
- More than 80 percent of the time it goes to the incumbent
- The incumbent is viewed already as the president
- Incumbents possess the bully pulpit - have a much larger voice even when compared to
someone with a a lot of funding
- They also would have more experience
- People are used to thinking of the incumbent as president so there is a form of patriotism
and loyalty
The main idea: National conventions select official party candidates for the general election. States choose delegates through primaries or caucuses. Primaries involve direct voting, with delegates representing candidates proportionally. Caucuses involve a series of conventions, ultimately selecting delegates for the national convention. Iowa caucuses and New Hampshire primaries are significant due to their early timing, influencing fundraising and media attention
RNC DNC
- it is here where they choose the candidates to run against each other in the general election
- Going into the convention, we usually already know the candidates. Each state has its own selection process, and from that we know how many delegates they will send and whom they will vote for.
Delegates A caucus
- people get together in conventions
- People try to market for different candidates
- Takes place over many many months A primary
- an election that is based on direct voting, with delegates representing candidates
- Democratic primary
- Republican primary
- Happens on one day
Iowa caucus
New Hampshire primary
These are important because they happen very early on in the primary season. The candidates that do good here, give a signal for the front runner.
The main idea: Primary elections, including closed, open, and blanket primaries, are preliminary elections to narrow down candidates for the general election. Closed primaries allow only registered party members to vote, while open primaries permit unaffiliated voters or those from other parties. Blanket primaries involve all candidates competing in one election, with the top two advancing to the general election.
Primaries - preliminary elections used to get down to a fewer number of candidates Whoever wins the primary, they would advance to the general election
Who votes in primaries
Closed primary - Only registered party members can vote in the primary
- will only contribute to the base Open primary - the opposite
Blanket primary - instead of going through the partisan process, all candidates would just go through one preliminary election sent eh top two would advance. Could have potential to have 2 people form the same party.
The main idea: The Electoral College plays a crucial role in US presidential elections. Voters indirectly choose the president by selecting electors who pledge to vote for a specific candidate. Most states use a winner-take-all system, with the candidate receiving the majority of votes getting all electoral votes. Nebraska and Maine are exceptions, allocating electoral votes by congressional district. This system can lead to a candidate winning the popular vote but losing the Electoral College.
● The president and vice president are formally elected at the Electoral College in December following the general election. Electors from each state plus the District of Columbia cast votes; most states require all their electors to vote for the statewide popular vote winner. This “winner-takes-all” approach to distributing electors raises
questions over the extent to which the Electoral College facilitates or impedes
democracy.
● Critics of the Electoral College highlight the potential for a candidate to lose the
nationwide popular vote but win the presidency as in 2016 and 2000. The “winner-takes-all” allocation of most electors in the Electoral College also means that voters in “safe states”--those that have consistently voted for the same party in recent presidential elections, such as California and Texas--are often less engaged and less motivated to vote in a presidential election, compared to voters in more competitive “swing states” where both Democratic and Republican candidates have won recently, such as Florida and Ohio.
● On the other hand, defenders of the Electoral College argue that it incentivizes candidates to campaign in states of different sizes, rather than just the largest states and
cities, and that it keeps a prominent role for the states in a federal election.
Closed primary - a primary election limited to registered members of a political party; for example, in a state with closed primaries, only registered Democrats can vote in the Democratic primary to choose candidates for local, state, and national office
General election - an election that decides which candidate will fill an elective
Open primary - a primary election that is not limited to registered party members. For example, in a state with open primaries, independent voters or Republicans can vote in the Democratic primary to choose candidates for local, state, and national office
Popular vote - the total or percentage of votes won by each candidate
Caucus - a meeting in a voting precinct at which party members choose nominees for political
office after hours of speeches and debates; caucuses tend to promote the views of dedicated
party members since participating requires a large time commitment
Electoral college - the group of electors chosen by each state to formally vote for the next U.S.
president based on the result of voting in the stat
Incumbency advantage - the tendency of incumbents (officials already holding a political
office) to win reelection; incumbents have advantages in media exposure, fundraising, and staff
Party convention - a meeting of delegates from one political parties to vote on policy and
select party candidates for public office
Primary election - an election that decides which candidate a party will send on to a general
election; primary elections pit candidates from the same party against one another
Winner-takes-all - an electoral system in which the candidate with the most votes is elected or, in the case of the U.S. Electoral College, gains all the votes of a state or district’s electors
Election timeline
January-June, election year - states hold primaries and caucuses to vote for party nominees
November, election year - the presidential election takes place on the Tuesday following the first Monday in November
CONGRESSIONAL ELECTIONS
Main idea: Incumbent politicians enjoy advantages in Congressional elections, such as staff support, free mail, name recognition, and funding. Voting districts are often redrawn to favor incumbents, a process called gerrymandering. Primary election formats and coinciding with presidential elections also impact Congressional election outcomes.
● Congressional elections don’t garner as much attention as presidential elections, but they’re an important avenue for citizen engagement.
Key takeaway
● Civic participation in a representative democracy — Decisions made at the local and
state level concerning the form that primaries will take, which nominees for office proceed to general elections, and which party controls Congress have far-reaching consequences for the composition of US government.
● One major factor influencing the outcome of congressional elections is the advantage that incumbent candidates have over challengers; incumbents are typically much better funded and are better recognized by voters; plus, they participate in deciding the boundaries of voting districts.
MODERN CAMPAIGNS
Main idea: Modern campaigns, particularly in the United States, have seen a dramatic increase in cost and duration. This rise in expenses is attributed to factors like hiring professional staff, political consultants, and advertising, especially in mass media.
Spring-summer before election year - most serious candidates declare their intention to run
for president
Summer, election year - parties hold national conventions to formally nominate their
presidential and vice presidential candidates, typically choosing the candidate with the most
votes from state primaries and caucuses
December, election year - the Electoral College takes place at which the president and vice
president are formally elected
Additionally, long election cycles and the growing influence of social media play significant roles in shaping modern campaigns.
● A number of changes in recent decades characterize modern campaigns and how their organization and strategies affect elections, including longer election cycles, increased campaign costs and fundraising efforts, increased reliance on professional consultants, and the role of social media in both communication and fundraising.
campaign finance - The fundraising to support a candidate in their run for political office. political consultants - People who promote the election of candidates for political office by
helping advise candidates on how best to present their ideas to the public.
- Primacy of Primaries (Before 1970s):
- Candidates chosen by party leaders, often in secret.
- Shorter election process.
- Primaries and caucuses relatively unimportant.
- Party leaders could freely ignore results and pick a different candidate. - Many states did not hold a vote at all.
- Primacy of Primaries (Since 1976):
- State primaries became the principal way to select presidential candidates.
- Every state, the District of Columbia, and some overseas territories hold a vote. - Longer presidential election cycle.
- Candidates start campaigning up to three years ahead of election day.
- Costs and Consultants:
- Campaign costs have significantly risen since the 1970s.
- Candidates rely heavily on individual donors and corporations for funding.
- Professional political consultants integral to modern campaigns.
- Consultants responsible for campaign management, polls, messaging for media and public.
- Effects of Social Media:
- Social media crucial for communicating campaign goals, mobilizing voters, and fundraising in
the 21st century.
- Effective way to reach voters due to their online presence.
- Direct communication between candidates and the electorate.
- Greater control over messaging compared to broadcast or print media.
- Purchase of social media data enables micro-targeting of voters with individualized
messages based on online behavior.
CAMPAIGN FINANCE Main ideas:
● Campaign finance in the US involves various actors, including candidates, party committees, individuals, and organizations. Money flows through hard money (regulated) and soft money (unregulated) channels. The Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act of 2002 aimed to limit soft money, but the 2010 Citizens United ruling enabled Super PACs to spend unlimited funds independently, raising questions about the influence of money in politics.
● A deep dive into Citizens United v. FEC, a 2010 Supreme Court case that ruled that political spending by corporations, associations, and labor unions is a form of protected speech under the First Amendment. In this video, Sal discusses the case with scholars Richard Hasen and Bradley Smith.
● The role that campaign contributions play in elections has long been a subject of debate, and that debate has increased in recent decades.
● Campaign finance, organization, and strategy affect which candidates get selected, the policies they promote, and who wins elections. Therefore, the role of money in campaigns remains a contentious issue, particularly whether Congress should regulate who can contribute money to campaigns, and how much money they should be allowed to contribute.
“Stand by Your Ad” provision - A provision of the Bipartisan Campaign Act of 2002 which requires ads used to support or oppose a candidate to include this line: “I’m [candidate’s name] and I approve this message."
political action committee (PAC) - An organization, usually representing an interest group or corporation, that raises money with the goal of supporting or defeating candidates, parties, or legislation. There are limits to the amount of money a PAC can donate to a candidate or party in each election.
Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act of 2002 - Also known as the McCain-Feingold Act. Banned
soft money and reduced attack ads.
soft money - Money spent in support of a candidate without directly donating to their campaign,
such as paying for ads or campaign events, or giving to the candidate’s party.
super PAC* - Also called an "independent expenditure-only committee," a super PAC may
raise unlimited funds in support of a candidate or party as long as they do not coordinate in any
way with the candidate or party or donate directly to the candidate.
Citizens United v. Federal Elections Commission(2010) - A Supreme Court case which ruled that political spending by corporations, associations, and labor unions is a form of protected
speech under the First Amendment.
- PACs and Super PACs:
- PACs raise money for political campaigns and influence elections and policymaking. - Individuals can contribute up to $5,000 per PAC and donate to multiple PACs.
- Super PACs, composed of various entities, have no contribution limits and can spend
unlimited funds to support or oppose candidates.
- Super PACs emerged after 2010, leading to debates on campaign finance legislation.
- Regulating Money in Campaigns:
- Federal government has periodically limited campaign and party contributions.
- The Federal Elections Commission, established in 1974, regulates money in elections. - Divided views among politicians on money's role in politics, with some advocating for
unlimited spending as free speech and others concerned about the advantage it gives to the wealthy and powerful groups.
- Impact of Citizens United Decision:
- Citizens United decision protected political spending by corporations, associations, and labor
unions as free speech under the First Amendment.
- Supreme Court rulings, including Citizens United, eased campaign contribution limits and
fostered Super PACs.
- Increased debates on the role of money in elections
• There are two types of campaigns in American politics: campaigns for party nominations (nomination campaigns) and campaigns between nominees for public office (election campaigns).
• Nominations for offices are made via primaries and caucuses, which severely weaken party organizations’ control over the nomination process and encourages candidates to rely on personal campaign organizations.
• Campaigning today is an art and a science, heavily dependent on professional political consultants, polling, and technology.
• Candidates need money to build a campaign organization and to get their message out. The Federal Election Campaign act of 1974, passed in the wake of the Watergate scandals, supposedly tightened reporting requirements and limited overall expenditures. It also allows for public funding for presidential candidates. The law’s loopholes were exploited by both parties, causing a Congress to pass the Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act. Further loopholes and Court Decisions have allowed relatively unregulated, outside groups to become increasingly involved in campaigns.
• Elections are governed by both the federal and state governments. The federal government is engaged primarily in protecting people from discrimination in their
exercise of the right to vote, regulating campaign finance for federal office, and setting uniform dates for federal elections.
• Elections socialize and institutionalize political activity, by providing a peaceful channel or participation.
• To be elected president, a candidate must win a majority of the Electoral College vote. A state’s electoral votes are allocated to candidates on a winner- take-all basis. Because of this feature, candidates concentrate their campaign efforts on states with large blocks of electoral votes, and in states where the race in tightly contested.
• Voters’ choice on election days is influenced by the interaction of party identification, candidate evaluations, and the voter’s policy positions matched with the candidate’s.
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