Hazardous enviroments

HAITI EARTHQUAKE (2010)

LIC (Low-Income Country)

Key Facts:

  • Date: 12 January 2010

  • Magnitude: 7.0 on the Richter scale

  • Epicentre: Near Léogâne, ~25 km from Port-au-Prince (capital)

  • Depth: 13 km (shallow = more destructive)

  • Tectonic Setting: Conservative boundary – Caribbean Plate and North American Plate

Impacts:

Primary:

  • 230,000 deaths

  • 300,000+ injured

  • 1.5 million homeless

  • 50% of buildings collapsed in Port-au-Prince (incl. Presidential Palace & UN HQ)

  • Critical infrastructure destroyed (roads, hospitals, airports)

Secondary:

  • Cholera outbreak (over 10,000 deaths)

  • Looting and civil unrest

  • Over-reliance on international aid

  • Economy crippled – damage cost estimated at $8 billion

  • Long-term displacement in refugee camps

Responses:

Short-term:

  • International aid sent (US, UN, NGOs)

  • Rescue teams & medical aid flown in

  • Temporary shelters established

Long-term:

  • Debris removal and rebuilding projects

  • Infrastructure slowly rebuilt, but corruption and poor planning slowed progress

  • International aid continued for years

CHRISTCHURCH EARTHQUAKE (2011)

HIC (High-Income Country)

Key Facts:

  • Date: 22 February 2011

  • Magnitude: 6.3 on the Richter scale

  • Epicentre: Near Lyttelton, ~10 km from Christchurch

  • Depth: 5 km (very shallow)

  • Tectonic Setting: Conservative boundary – Pacific Plate and Australian Plate

Impacts:

Primary:

  • 185 deaths

  • 2,000+ injured

  • Extensive damage to central Christchurch (cathedral collapsed)

  • 50% of buildings in central business district severely damaged or destroyed

  • Liquefaction affected infrastructure

Secondary:

  • $40 billion in damage

  • Ongoing aftershocks caused psychological stress

  • Economic impact on tourism and education sectors

  • Insurance claims caused delays in rebuilding

  • Long-term displacement of residents

Responses:

Short-term:

  • Rapid emergency services response

  • National state of emergency declared

  • International help (Australia, Japan, UK)

Long-term:

  • Extensive insurance coverage supported rebuilding

  • New building regulations introduced

  • Christchurch Rebuild Authority established

  • Infrastructure and zoning improvements

Key Strengths:

  • Strong government coordination

  • High preparedness level (earthquake drills, building codes)

  • Good communication and access to resources

🔍 Comparison Points between Haiti and Christchuch:

Factor

Haiti (2010) – LIC

Christchurch (2011) – HIC

Economic Capacity

Very limited; reliant on aid

Strong; insured economy, fast response

Death Toll

Extremely high (230,000)

Lower (185) despite high magnitude impact

Building Quality

Poor construction, unregulated

Strict building codes in place

Emergency Response

Slow, chaotic

Fast, organised

Long-Term Recovery

Still ongoing, hindered by politics

Effective, although costly

A volcano is an opening in the Earth's surface through which magma (molten rock), gases, and ash escape.

7. Volcano Case Study: Mt. Pinatubo, Philippines (1991)

  • Date: June 1991

  • VEI: 6 (Colossal)

  • Cause: Convergent boundary (Eurasian plate subducting under Philippine plate)

  • Primary Hazards:

    • Ash plume reached 34 km into atmosphere

    • Pyroclastic flows destroyed villages

  • Secondary Hazards:

    • Lahars continued for years due to monsoon rains

    • Global temperatures dropped by 0.5°C due to ash

  • Impacts:

    • 847 killed, over 1 million displaced

    • $700 million in damage

  • Responses:

    • Early evacuation saved lives

    • Long-term resettlement and monitoring system improvements

8. Hazard Perception

  • Wealth: Poorer residents more at risk due to lack of resources to evacuate.

  • Experience: Locals underestimated risk—eruption was dormant for 600+ years.

  • Education: Education and science-based communication by USGS helped save lives.

  • Beliefs: Some indigenous people delayed evacuation due to cultural beliefs.

  • Mobility: Many in rural areas lacked transport to evacuate quickly.

Volcano-Eyjafjallajökull Eruption, Iceland – 2011

Type of Hazard:

  • Volcanic eruption (stratovolcano)

  • Lava, ash cloud, and glacial melt causing flooding

Background:

  • Location: Southern Iceland, on the Mid-Atlantic Ridge (constructive plate boundary)

  • Type of volcano: Stratovolcano beneath a glacier

  • Eruption Date: Major event in April 2010, but volcanic activity continued into 2011

Impacts:

Environmental:

  • Ash cloud ejected 9 km into the atmosphere

  • Flooding from glacial melt (jökulhlaup)

  • Ash fall affected farmland and air quality

Social:

  • No fatalities, but significant disruption to daily life

  • 500 people evacuated from rural areas

Economic:

  • Estimated cost to the aviation industry: $1.7 billion

  • Over 100,000 flights cancelled across Europe

  • Affected global supply chains (e.g., Kenya’s flower exports)

Management & Response:

  • Real-time monitoring by the Icelandic Meteorological Office

  • Airspace closed proactively (EU coordination)

  • Use of satellite and seismic monitoring

  • Effective communication through social and mainstream media

Volcanic gas Lake Nyos Disaster, Cameroon – 1986

Type of Hazard:

  • Limnic eruption (CO₂ gas burst from lake)

  • Rare gas-based geophysical disaster

Background:

  • Location: Northwest Cameroon

  • Volcanic crater lake overlying magma, slowly accumulating CO₂

  • Date of event: August 21, 1986

  • Trigger: Possibly a landslide or overturn from heavy rain

Impacts:

Environmental:

  • Release of ~1.6 million tonnes of CO₂

  • Suffocated livestock and vegetation over a wide area

Social:

  • 1,746 people killed in surrounding villages

  • 3,500 livestock dead

  • Survivors suffered trauma and respiratory issues

Economic:

  • Collapse of local agriculture

  • Displacement of rural communities

  • Long-term socio-economic impacts due to fear and relocation

Management & Response:

  • International scientific response (USGS, French experts)

  • Degassing project started: Pipes installed to release CO₂ gradually

  • Education programs for local communities

🌪 tropical storm Case Study: Typhoon Haiyan, Philippines (2013)

📍 Location and Background

  • Typhoon Name: Haiyan (locally called Yolanda)

  • Date: November 8, 2013

  • Location: Central Philippines

  • Category: Category 5 Super Typhoon

  • Winds: Up to 314 km/h (195 mph)

  • Storm Surge: Up to 6 meters high

  • Affected Areas: Primarily Tacloban City, Leyte, Samar, Cebu, and surrounding islands

🌀 Causes of the Typhoon

  • Warm ocean temperatures over the Pacific (above 26.5°C) provided energy for the storm.

  • Low wind shear allowed the storm to intensify rapidly.

  • Coriolis force near the equator enabled the storm to rotate.

  • High humidity in the atmosphere contributed to storm development.

  • Climate change may have played a role in increasing sea surface temperatures, intensifying the typhoon.

Primary Impacts

  • Death toll: Over 6,300 people officially confirmed dead.

  • Homes destroyed: Over 1.1 million homes.

  • Storm surge: Caused widespread flooding, especially in Tacloban.

  • Wind damage: Entire towns flattened, especially coastal communities.

  • Injuries: Over 28,000 people injured.

  • Power and communications down across many islands.

  • Agriculture destroyed: Rice and sugarcane fields wiped out.

Secondary Impacts

  • Disease outbreaks due to contaminated water (e.g., cholera, dysentery).

  • Looting and civil unrest in affected areas.

  • Displacement: Over 4 million people left homeless.

  • Livelihoods lost: Especially in farming and fishing communities.

  • Long-term economic damage: Estimated at $5.8 billion USD.

  • Infrastructure damage delayed aid and rescue efforts.

  • Increased poverty due to job losses and destruction of property.

📊 Key Statistics for Typhoon Haiyan

Metric

Data

Date

November 8, 2013

Wind Speed

314 km/h

Storm Surge Height

Up to 6 meters

Death Toll

~6,300

People Affected

14 million

Homes Damaged/Destroyed

1.1 million

Economic Damage

$5.8 billion USD

Displaced Persons

4.1 million

🆘 Responses

Short-term (Immediate):

  • Evacuation centers set up in safer areas.

  • International aid sent (e.g., USA, UK, UN).

    • UK sent £77 million and the HMS Illustrious carrier with supplies.

  • Emergency supplies: food, water, and medicine distributed.

  • Search and rescue teams deployed.

Long-term:

  • "Build Back Better" policy introduced by the Philippine government.

  • New storm shelters built and planning regulations improved.

  • Replanting of mangroves to buffer future storm surges.

  • Aid from NGOs like Red Cross helped rebuild homes and infrastructure.

  • Education on disaster preparedness improved in schools and communities.

Hurricane Case Study: Hurricane Katrina, USA (2005)

  • Location: Gulf Coast (Louisiana, Mississippi)

  • Magnitude: Category 5; landfall as Category 3

  • Impacts:

    • Social: 1,833 deaths, 1 million displaced

    • Economic: $125 billion in damages

    • Environmental: Levee failure, flooding of New Orleans

    • Political: Criticism of FEMA and federal response

  • Response:

    • Slow, inadequate evacuation; poor coordination

    • Rebuilding led to gentrification and community displacement

8. Hazard Perception

  • Wealth: Poor communities affected most

  • Experience: Previous storms didn’t prepare residents for scale

  • Education: Risk miscommunication

  • Beliefs: Distrust in government delayed evacuation

Tornado Case Study: Joplin Tornado, Missouri (2011)

  • Date: May 22, 2011

  • EF Rating: EF5 with winds > 320 km/h

  • Impacts:

    • Social: 158 deaths, over 1,100 injured

    • Economic: $2.8 billion in damage, 7,000 homes destroyed

    • Environmental: Debris scattered for miles

    • Political: Declared federal disaster; highlighted need for improved emergency response

  • Response:

    • Emergency shelters activated, federal aid mobilized quickly

    • Criticism of siren delay and lack of warning comprehension by public

8. Hazard Perception

  • Wealth: Determines shelter availability

  • Experience: Frequent tornadoes may lead to underestimation of risk

  • Education: Affects comprehension of warnings

  • Mobility: Elderly/disabled more vulnerable

Case Study Mass movement: Vargas Tragedy, Venezuela (1999)

  • Date: December 1999

  • Trigger: 911 mm of rainfall in a few days

  • Type: Debris flows, landslides down coastal mountains

  • Impacts:

    • Social: Over 30,000 deaths, 75,000 homeless

    • Economic: Billions in damages, loss of infrastructure

    • Environmental: River channels changed, massive sediment deposition

    • Political: Criticism of urban development policies and lack of early warning

  • Response:

    • Military aid, emergency housing

    • Long-term resettlement efforts faced challenges

8. Hazard Perception

  • Wealth: Poorer communities often located on unstable slopes

  • Experience: Lack of memory or records led to poor preparedness

  • Education: Residents unaware of early warning signs

  • Mobility: Steep, informal settlements hindered evacuation

Bohol Earthquake, Philippines (2013)

Location and Date

  • Epicenter: Near Carmen, Bohol Island, Central Visayas region, Philippines

  • Date: October 15, 2013

  • Magnitude: 7.2 on the Richter scale

  • Depth: 12 km (shallow-focus quake)

Causes

  • Tectonic setting: The Philippines lies on the Pacific Ring of Fire, a zone of frequent seismic activity.

  • The earthquake was caused by movement along a previously unknown fault line (North Bohol Fault).

  • It was a reverse fault movement (compressional stress)—typical of convergent boundaries.

  • The Philippines is situated between the Eurasian Plate and the Philippine Sea Plate.

Primary Impacts:

  • Deaths: Over 220 people killed

  • Injured: Around 1,000

  • Displaced: Over 340,000 people

  • Homes destroyed: Over 73,000 structures damaged, including 14,500 totally collapsed

  • Historical heritage sites were badly affected (e.g., Loboc and Baclayon churches—centuries-old Spanish colonial buildings)

Secondary Impacts:

  • Landslides blocked roads and isolated communities

  • Disruption of power and communication

  • Water shortages due to damaged infrastructure

  • Tourism declined—many tourists evacuated the area

Responses

Short-term:

  • State of Calamity declared in Bohol and Cebu

  • Emergency relief from the Philippine government and international NGOs (e.g., Red Cross, UN)

  • Temporary shelters set up for displaced populations

  • Medical assistance and food distribution coordinated

  • Military helicopters used for aid in remote areas

Long-term:

  • Infrastructure rehabilitation (roads, bridges, schools)

  • Disaster risk reduction programs strengthened (e.g., Earthquake drills, early warning systems)

  • Geo-hazard mapping improved to identify unknown faults

  • Community education on emergency preparedness

Evaluation

  • Despite the magnitude, the death toll was relatively low compared to similar quakes, thanks in part to:

    • It occurring in the morning when people were awake

    • Rapid emergency response and coordination

    • Improved disaster management systems post-2009 typhoons

  • Challenges included reaching isolated rural areas, especially due to landslides and damaged bridges.