Introduction to Kantian Deontological Ethics

Immanuel Kant: A German philosopher born in Konigsberg.
Foundational Questions and Works:
- Critique of Pure Reason: Focuses on Epistemology; asks "What can I know?"
- Critique of Practical Reason: Focuses on Ethics; asks "What should I do?"
- Critique of Judgement: Focuses on Aesthetics; asks "What may I hope?"

Knowledge Processing:
- Intuition: The process of knowing an object without active thought.
- Perception: Describing things by using the senses.
Kant's Thinking Cap (Categories):
- Quantity: Unity, Plurality, Totality.
- Quality: Reality, Negation, Limitation.
- Relation: Substance, Causality, Interaction.
- Modality: Possibility, Existence, Necessity.

Moral Agency: Humans are rational agents; therefore, we are moral agents.
Duty: Described as sublime, mighty, and holy.
- Perfect Duty: Actions one must always do (or avoid); often framed as "what not to do."
- Imperfect Duty: Actions one performs, but not necessarily at all times; framed as "what to do."

Maxim: Personal beliefs or rules for action.
Hypothetical Imperative: Commands to perform an action ( $Y$ ) specifically because of an end goal (e.g., helping others).
Categorical Imperative: Commands to perform an action ( $Y$ ) no matter what the circumstances or desires are.

Formula $1$ (Universal Law): An act is right if its maxim allows one's freedom of will to coexist with everyone else's freedom according to universal law. Ask: "What if everyone does this?"
Formula $2$ (Humanity): Treat humanity, in yourself and others, always as an end and never as a means only. (Concept: "Be user-friendly, not a friendly user").
Formula $3$ (Autonomy): The idea of the will of every rational being as a universally legislating will.
Formula $4$ (Kingdom of Ends): Act as a universally legislating member of a merely possible kingdom of ends (Context: League of Nations and United Nations).