CLASSICAL GREECE LECTURE NOTES

FORMS OF GOVERNMENT IN GREECE BEFORE DEMOCRACY:

Basileus: King/monarchs who ruled city-states. Sometimes a city had more than one basileus at a time, e.g., Sparta.
- During Mycenaean times, these were village chieftains. By ancient Greece's apex, they were considered royal (monarchy, or rule of one).
- Eventually, they were subordinated by Greek aristocracy.
Aristocracy: (Rule of few, rule by the best citizens with best intentions for the polis). Translates into the rule of the best.
Oligarchy: Translates into the rule of the few. Basically, a government run by a handful of people; not necessarily bad, but the group was always exclusive. Greek society evolved to rule by oligarchy over monarchs.

Greek Governments leading to democracy:

Tyranny: Rule seized by an individual usually through overthrow.
Democracy: ("Rule by mob" – democracy is not always defined as the modern world defines it, democracy can also include the "tyranny of the majority.")
Polity: (Rule of many; could also be known as a republic form of government).

EVOLUTION OF GREEK GOVERNMENT:

Greek government evolved in the following way:

kingship > oligarchy > tyranny > democracy

Kingship (monarchy) gives way to oligarchy (usually by powerful, privileged clans).
Oligarchy gives way to tyranny (tyrants usually come from outside the oligarchy and overthrow oligarchy through revolution).
Tyranny gives way to democracy (a more inclusive form of government).

GREEK TYRANNY:

Note that the term "tyrant" or "tyranny" has bad connotations in today's society, but did not necessarily mean something bad in ancient Greece. Tyrants are self-made monarchs whose supporters are usually previously politically marginalized peoples. In addition, the term "democracy" did not always mean good things; in ancient Greece, democracy could also mean "rule by mob."

Examples of tyrants:

In the city-state of Argos, the tyrant Pheidon (c. 660 BC).
In the city-state of Corinth, the tyrant Kypselos (657-585 BC).
In the city-state of Athens, the tyrant Peisistratidai (560-510 BC) and his sons.

As an example of tyrant rule, Kypselos overthrew the ruling oligarchy in Corinth and gave more rights to people. While Kypselos was loved for this, his son Periandros replaced Kypselos and banished all dissenters from the polis.

GREEK GOVERNMENT:

Most Greek cities divide authority between multiple officials. (See powerpoint for chart that shows the division of government authority in the two most powerful Classical Greek poleis (city-states).)

GREEK SOCIAL CLASSES:

Greek social divisions:

Citizens: (Males that could vote and hold office)
Residents: (Free persons protected by local laws, but could not vote or hold office, similar to modern idea of "resident aliens.")
Underclass: (Slaves, often people in debt or prisoners of war. Note that there is not racial/ethnic component to slavery in ancient Greece).

ATHEN'S GOVERNMENT:

Arkhons: "Governors," serve one-year terms.
Council: Two different councils:
- The Boule: Wield the most power.
- The Areopagos: Comprised of former Arkhons, the elite members of society. The Areopagos eventually evolve into a role similar to the Supreme Court.
Assembly: All of the citizens eligible to vote (thus excluding women). In Athens, the assembly has collective power and can vote on policies and propose policies.

DRACO:

During the infancy of the Athenian legal system, Draco composed the city's first written law code with the aim of reducing arbitrary decisions of punishment and blood feuds between parties. Ultimately, though, the laws aided and legitimized the political power of the aristocracy and allowed them to consolidate their control of the land and poor. Famously harsh, the laws were ultimately replaced by Solon in 594 BCE.

SOLON:

A modestly wealthy Athenian trader (630 to 560 BC). Given a "free hand" to make reforms to Draco's code. Did not attempt land reform due to mainly to length of time it takes to grow olive trees (88 to 1010 years!!). Solon brought reforms in order to prevent future attempts at tyrants overthrowing the government. These reforms included a one-time elimination of individual debts and freeing those enslaved for unpaid debts (Seisakhtheia). Solon divided the populace into 4 tribes or classes, with 100100 representatives of each tribe elected as members of the Boule. These tribes (classes) are divided by wealth and suggest the possibility of social mobility (moving between the classes). Ultimately his reforms did not work; however, he is considered to have laid the groundwork for the development of Athenian democracy.

Tyranny of Peisistratidai: (560-510 BC)

Pisistratus took control of Athens after Solon left. After his death, his sons took control of Athens. Marginalized groups overthrow the tyrannical government of Pisistratus’ sons, who ultimately ruled as despots. The tyranny gave way to another overthrow of government, this time by the aristocracy aided by Sparta. This leads to a power struggle which will be won by Kleisthenes.

KLEISTHENES: 570 BC to 508 BC:

He was an aristocrat & reformer. The Athenians turn to him to re-establish order. He returned from exile and sided with common people. He created a new Constitution with the following criteria:

10 new tribes representing all classes.
All adult males became Assembly members.
Introduced ostracyism; removed discredited leaders.
Equality of laws & freedom of speech.

Kleisthenes expands the Boule to 500 members. The new Boule is comprised of 5050 members from each of 1010 tribes. Kleisthenes hoped to reduce factionalism, which drove apart the last several ruling bodies. The new tribes were also divided geographically so that no faction dominated any one geographic area.

OSTRACISM:

Ostracism = Introduced by Kleisthenes, it was a practice employed to get rid of potential tyrants. Done as a way to prevent one individual from gaining too much power. During annual elections, citizens cast votes via pottery shards (such as those shown) with names of potential tyrants. If a person got enough votes, they would be expelled for 1010 years. This was a way to remove potentially dangerous politicians. (These pottery shards show the names of famous Athenians who received votes for ostracism—that does not mean they were actually ostracized. See powerpoint.)

ATHENIAN DEMOCRACY:

The basic government form instituted by Kleisthenes held for centuries in Athens. It contained two important basic principles:

No professional bureaucrats!!
- Nobody served on council more than twice!
Each citizen could hold office! (What did we say a citizen is?)

CLASSICAL GREECE:

Polis: Literally "city." In the Classical Greek context, the polis is a city-state. Polis is the root for the names of many American cities, such as Minneapolis and Indianapolis. The polis is the core of the Classical Greece political system. A polis operated as an independent state, such as Athens, to which a citizen owed allegiance and identity. Classical Greece is not a unified nation in the modern sense; it is composed of many smaller independent city-states. Sometimes city-states banded together in federations of more than one city-state in order to exert greater influence (an example is the Delian League, discussed later).

FORMATION OF POLIS:

Synoikism: Loosely meaning "to dwell together," synoikism is the process by which smaller villages come together to form a large city or federation, politically fusing several poleis together.

STRUCTURE OF THE POLIS:

Polis city-planning: Two important structures are found in most poleis.

Acropolis: Inner fortress. Usually contained the treasury and located on a fortified hill.
Agora: The center of public and economic activity. Where people came to trade, attend religious ceremonies, vote, etc.

HOPLITE:

Hoplites: Heavily armored fighters. Hoplites were typically middle-class farmers who thus had a vested interest in protecting the city-state.
Hoplites became the backbone for the later Greek military. Hoplites fought together in a formation called a phalanx.

PHALANX:

Phalanx: A large body of closely packed hoplites with long spears extending outward. The "phalanx" was a closed linear formation method for war. Groups of hoplites stood in close quarters with overlapping shields, thus forming an armored wall of soldiers. This was a major military development that required order and discipline in the soldiers. The downside to fighting in a phalanx was that it was difficult to do on uneven terrain.

ATHENIAN EDUCATION:

Boys ages 77 to 1818 were educated in private schools.
Girls were not educated, exemplifying the role of women in Greek society. A woman’s place was in the home or in entertainment.

SPARTA = Lakedaimon

LYKOURGOS:

Lykourgos is credited with setting up the Spartan form of government. This included Rhetra, the militarized form of Spartan citizenship that cultivated a warrior society.
Rhetra: The general system/lifestyle of the Spartans, defined by upholding the codes of their militaristic society. The strict adherence to the Rhetra allowed Sparta to become a powerful city-state who often "bullied" other city-states into submission.
Lykourgos needed to develop a warrior class to contain the helots, who outnumbered the Spartans 1010 to 11. He created the Spartan constitution.
Laws were not written down: discipline will maintain order!

SPARTAN LIFE:

A very militaristic society.
Male Spartan children were inspected by elders at birth; those deemed unfit were killed or cast off.
At an early age, Spartan boys were taught hunting and military skills.
Agoge: Spartan training system starting at age 77.
Food was rationed, so boys were expected to steal but don’t get caught!
At age 2020, accepted into army or rejected!
Men could marry but still lived in barracks.
At age 3030, took place in the assembly, and received land. Helots supported your family.
At age 6060, you could retire from the army.
Spartans viewed art, trade, and the written word as pursuits unbecoming of warriors.
Sparta was isolated from its neighbors (no trade or wealth, no travel, no arts).
Done in order to maintain stability of system. Very few non-Spartan Greeks were allowed in Sparta.
Iron bars were currency.

SPARTAN WOMEN:

While the militarized society of Sparta created a powerful military, it also had negative effects for the society at large. Men and women were often kept separated, which made reproduction rates lower than in other Greek cities. Thus, heavy losses in a Spartan battle severely weakened Sparta as a whole.
Spartan women enjoyed more freedom than most other ancient Greek women, but freedom is relative to their role as encouraging the Spartan military system.
Women were encouraged to remain physically fit on the belief that fit women bore fit children (who would become better warriors).
Spartan women also helped to indoctrinate their children and husbands in the Spartan military system.
Had the right to inherit property.

SPARTAN GOV’T:

Sparta is essentially an oligarchy:

Kings: Ruled by two kings with ceremonial power. Kingships are hereditary. Kings are military and religious leaders in Sparta.
Ephors: More powerful than kings, they are the administrators of the city.
Gerousia: An advisory council of 28 elders.
Assembly: All of the citizens eligible to vote (thus excluding women). In Sparta, the assembly can vote on policies but cannot propose policies.

SPARTAN SOCIETY:

Full Spartan citizens were called Spartiates or homoioi.
Residents were called perioikoi = the "dwellers around."
Slaves = helots: Similar to serfs, slave-like but not quite slaves. Helots are legally tied to a piece of land they work for someone else. They must work that particular piece of land regardless of who owns the land.

PERSIAN WARS:

As concluded Unit 1, the Persians were emerging as dominant in the Near East. They conquered Lydia and other cities of Asia Minor (including Greek city-states). In 499 BC, some of those Greek cities rebelled, led by the city of Miletus. Called the Ionian Revolt, it took Persia (and their leader Darius I) six years to put it down. A small number of Greek city-states in what is considered Greece today offered support to the rebellion, incurring the wrath of the Persians.

IONIAN REVOLT AND MARATHON:

The leaders of the Ionian revolt went to Greece for assistance, first asking Sparta who initially declined to intervene. Athens and Eretria, however, agreed to help, and the rebels sacked the Persian city of Sardeis.
However, the rebellion was suppressed, & Miletus burned. In return, Darius I of Persia decided to punish Greece for aiding the rebels.
After the first Persian fleet (First Persian Invasion) bound for Greece was lost at sea in 492 BC, a second expedition (Second Persian Invasion) in 490 BC destroyed Eretria, attacked Marathon, and planned an attack on Athens.
The Athenians again asked Sparta to aid them, and Sparta again declined, because of a religious festival.
The Battle of Marathon was an estimated 60,00060,000 Persians vs. 10,00010,000 Greeks led by general Miltiades. Greeks used the "Phalanx" battle formation (8 lines deep), and 6,0006,000 Persians were killed as the Persian army was pushed into the sea. Only 200200 Greeks were killed.
Outnumbered Athenians won the battle without Spartan help, and the Athenians claimed their superiority within Greece. Spartans arrived too late.
A runner, possibly Phidippides, supposedly ran 2626 miles to Athens with news of victory.

PERSIAN WARS: Third Persian Invasion (480-479 BC): THERMOPYLAI

Darius I’s son, Xerxes, launched a huge force from land and sea (estimated at 11 million people) in order to avenge his father and defeat Greece. Persian army crossed the Hellespont by creating a "pontoon bridge". Boats were lined up so they could walk across, but a storm destroyed it. Persians built it again. It took 11 week to walk across.
Smaller city-states immediately surrendered to Xerxes.
A small Greek army (most Greek city-states surrendered to Xerxes) gathered to fight Xerxes at Thermopylai, this time with the Spartans helping and led by the Spartan Leonidas I. The Greek army consisted of 300300 Spartans and 1,0001,000 other Greeks, and they initially held off Xerxes and the Persians.
A traitor eventually shows the Persians a way around the Greek army, and the Persians won the battle.

PERSIAN WARS: SALAMIS AND PLATAIAI

After the Persians burned Athens, the refugees gathered at Salamis. The Persians followed to attack them, but the Greek navy (led by Themistokles) was hidden nearby and destroyed most of the Persian fleet.
1,2001,200 Persian ships vs. 300300 Greek ships (led by Themistocles). Themistocles used the fleet to lure the Persian navy to the Strait of Salamis then used tides to attack Persians so they ran into each other.
Xerxes had to retreat to Persia for the time being but left a large army behind.
The remaining Persians were defeated by the Greeks (Sparta, Athens, Corinth, a few other city-states) at Plataiai. Greeks were led by Spartan general Pausanias vs. Xerxes' son-in-law Mardonius. Mardonius was killed early in the battle, and the Persians were defeated.

RESULTS OF THE PERSIAN WARS:

Athens becomes the most powerful city-state.
Organized Delian League, an alliance with other city-states.
Dominated alliance, which slowly turned into the Athenian Empire.

Athens in the Age of Pericles

GOLDEN AGE OF ATHENS AFTER THE PERSIAN WAR:

Delian League: The Greek naval alliance formed in 478 BC. The alliance is led by Athens, but the treasury is initially in Delos (hence the name). Athens is behind the founding of the Delian League. "Delian" because the Island of Delos holds the treasury, because it is out of reach of other city-states who want to steal from it.
The Delian League defeats the next Persian naval invasion at the Eurymedon in 469 or 466 BC. Battle is a land and sea battle in Asia Minor. The treasury of the Delian League is moved to Athens in 450 BC, giving Athens symbolic control of the Greek empire.
Trade expands under Cimon with the introduction of the drachma, a silver coin currency. Cimon uses the Athenian navy to intimidate and control league members. Cimon lost power when he tried to make friends with Sparta. Exiled for 1010 years after offering assistance to Sparta.
City-states pay money/tribute to the Delian League even after the war ends, but the Athenians spend the money on themselves. Athenians use money from the Delian League tributes to build up their own city in splendor.
Issues in Sparta: Sparta saw Athens' aggressiveness as a threat. They collected city-states around Sparta and formed the Peloponnesian League.

Spartan problems (during this time):

Earthquake destroys the city and leads to helot revolt.
Prominent generals accused of aiding Persians.

Themistokles: Leader of the Delian League early on and the Greek's naval leader. Eventually he is ostracized and ends up in Persia!
Triremes: Greek naval ships, very fast and maneuverable. They use wind and human power to operate (three humans operate each oar). Their main weapon is a battering ram in the front, used to sink other ships.
Citizens who serve on the ships of the Delian League gain political clout as politicians pander to them. Demagogues (those who "lead the mob") create new ways for the participation of less-elite citizens in government (becoming more democratic).

AGE OF PERIKLES 460 BC-429 BC:

On several occasions, Greek poleis (city-states) rebel against the Delian League's control. In return, Athens creates kleroukhies (or cleruchies). These are military and economic outposts of Athens placed in the land of their allies. The practice (started by Perikles) generally alienates many of the Athenian allies.
Perikles is the leader of Athens at the start of the Peloponnesian War and leads Athens through what is considered the "Golden Age" of Athens. Under Perikles, Athenian economy thrived and becomes more democratic. Direct democracy is introduced, and all citizens take part in government. Jury members received a stipend. Ostracism is continued.
The Funeral Oration is a famous speech given by Perikles and recorded by Thucydides. The speech is one of the earliest and greatest expressions of democratic ideals.
Economic and cultural life: Rebuild acropolis that was destroyed by the Persians. The Long Walls are built to Pireaus. With help of Aspasia, his wife, Perikles made Athens the cultural center of Greece, all with money borrowed/stolen from the Delian League!

PELOPONNESIAN WARS (431-404 BC)

BACKGROUND:

Sparta creates the Spartan League consisting of Corinth and city-states on the Peloponnesus. This league encourages oligarchy. It also rivals the Delian League made up of Athens, Aegean city-states, & Ionia.
Athens offers help with a helot rebellion but Sparta does not want help and sends them home. Athens is offended!
One city-state tried to change from Delian to Spartan League. Athens creates an embargo of Megara, an ally of Corinth. Sparta supports Corinth and called for war against the Delian League.

WAR BEGINS:

Greek against Greek war.
Athens is at a geographical disadvantage due to location near the sea. Sparta was inland (no attack from sea).
The war takes a long time as they are incompatible powers: Athens dominates the war at sea and Sparta the war on land.
Athens has superior wealth at the outset and believes they can outlast the Spartans. However, Athenians are also confined to their city and to the city (which they can reach behind protected walls).
431 & 430 BC: Spartan king Archidamus II invades Attica and destroys large areas around Athens. Athenians retreat behind the Long Walls. Pericles is deposed, but will eventually return to power.

STRATEGIES:

Sparta invades Attica and attacks the countryside, limiting the food production of the Athenians. Athenians demand allies send in food by way of their superior navy. Athens is connected to the coastal city of Pireaus by the Long Walls. This is how they get their food.
Sparta invaded every spring and returned to Sparta in the winter.
Athens' strategy: Pericles had people in the hinterlands move into the city to live. Athens' citizens were drawn behind its walls. This strategy proved costly early on and got worse in 429 BC when a plague broke out and killed 1/3 population and eventually, Pericles. Pericles was the strategic autocratic for 2929 consecutive years. Before his death, Pericles made his famous funeral oration speech.

Pericles' death leads to a split in leadership:

A. Cleon: wants to continue with the war.
B. Nicias: wants to sue for peace.

Athenian Assembly favors Cleon until his death in 422 BC.

WAR CONTINUES:

425 BC: Sparta offers peace to Athens after suffering several major losses. Athens rejects peace overtures until 421 BC when they lose 2 important generals in battle. In 421 BC, Peace of Nicias was established. Named after the main Athenian negotiator. Peace was supposed to last for 5050 years but only lasted for 33 years! Peace treaty is flawed. Sparta makes promises it can’t keep, and allies of Athens refuse to agree to the treaty.
418 BC: The peace is broken. Athens aligns itself with the city-states of Argos, Mantinea, and Elis in the Peloponneseus. Sparta forces Athens to make a decision: reject its alliances or face open warfare in the south. Athens chooses warfare, and the war unofficially begins with the Spartan victory at Mantinea in 418 BC.
415 BC: The nephew of Pericles, Alcibiades, convinces the Athenians to undertake an invasion of Syracuse, on the island of Sicily. The invasion was successful at first but soon turned into a disaster. The Athenian main commander Lamachus was killed, Alcibiades was recalled to Athens to stand trial, and Nicias fell ill. The Spartan adviser Glyippus arrived in the winter of 415/414 BC and turned the tide of the campaign. The Athenians sent reinforcements under Demosthenes in 413 BC, but he did not bring enough horses because the Spartans and Athenians have officially declared war on each other. Athenian expedition is completely wiped out. Not one Athenian soldier from the expedition returns home!!

END OF WAR:

War turns on Athens after disaster at Syracuse. Why?

Alcibiades is exiled and moves to Sparta and gives them the advice to build a permanent fort in Attica. This forces the Athenians to live behind the Long Walls year-round and cuts them off from their silver supply with which they buy food. Alcibiades will offer to negotiate a treaty with Persia if Athens allows him to return and form his own government. The Athenians agree, and democracy is suspended in 411 BC. The treaty with Persia never happens!
The Spartans concluded a treaty with the Persians in 412 BC. The Persians supplied money for the Spartans to buy ships. This will not take place until 408 BC.
Sparta found a new and capable commander named Lysander who convinced the Persians to fulfill their promise to buy ships for the Spartans.
406 BC: The major turning point: After a victory at the naval battle of Arginusae, the Athenian admirals were unable to pick up survivors in the sea due to a freak storm. This violated a long-standing Athenian tradition. The Athenian admirals were condemned and executed, removing the last of Athens' experienced leaders.
405 BC: Spartan admiral, Lysander, wins the Battle of Aegospotami. The Athenian fleet is destroyed. Sparta now attacks Athens with 3 armies. Athens surrenders, and is forced to disband the Delian League, destroy the protective walls from their city leading to the sea, and burn their remaining ships. Sparta forces an oligarchy called the 30 Tyrants to rule Athens. Sparta seizes power (or hegemony) in Greece. Athens will recover after a civil war. Ironically, they are supported by Persia!! The Long Walls are rebuilt in 395 BC, and democracy was restored.

TURNING POINTS: REVIEW

Death of Pericles
Failed Sicilian Expedition
Defection of Alcibiades
Persian alliance with Sparta
Defeat at Arginusae
Defeat at Aegospotami

POST PELOPONNESIAN WAR:

To defeat Athens, Sparta offered Persia several cities in exchange for gold. Sparta does not follow through on the deal, and Persia in turn supports Sparta’s enemies financially.
The Spartans finally give the requested cities to Persia, and Persian kings now dictate the affairs of Greece through diplomacy.

RESULTS (of Peloponnesian War):

Greece becomes a multi-polar system.
Democracy survives in Athens!!
Sparta declines because its social structure is not fit for the outside world.
Real winner is PERSIA!! Gain many Greek cities in the east.

GREECE AFTER PELOPONNESIAN WAR

SPARTAN DECLINE:

Sparta controls Greece from 404 to 372 BC. Greek cities generally do not support the Spartan power.
The city of Thebes breaks free from Spartan rule and frees other Greek cities, ending Sparta’s run of power.

BATTLE OF LEUCTRA:

Fought in 371 BC, Thebes, under the general Epameinondas, defeated the Spartans in battle.
The Spartan army was only able to field 700700 full Spartan citizens. The mystique of the Spartan warrior was broken.
The Thebans use their famous Sacred Band. After this battle, many of Sparta’s allies abandoned her. Thebes seizes hegemonic control of Greece until the arrival of Macedonians in **