SITUATING ARCHAEOLOGY - Key Notes (Chapter 1)

Images of Archaeology

  • Archaeology is everywhere in the early 21st century; part of the heritage industry; taught in universities; tied to politics, social movements, and popular culture.
  • Symbolic sites: the Acropolis (Athens) and Machu Picchu (Peru) represent archaeology, politics, and tourism; both are UNESCO World Heritage Sites.
  • Acropolis symbolizes Western civilization and the beginnings of archaeology; Machu Picchu symbolizes political use of archaeology and heritage tourism (≈5\times 10^5 visitors/year).

Defining Archaeology

  • There is no single consensus definition; two constants in most definitions: archaeology is focused on humans and uses material remains as essential data.
  • Common working definition: archaeology is the study of humans through their material remains (which include artifacts, dwellings, refuse, landscape modifications, etc.).
  • Time span is not fixed; archaeology studies the past and present, with a primary focus on the human past.
  • Human origin timeline: 2.5\times 10^6 years ago (genus Homo); Homininae timeframe roughly 5\times 10^6\text{ to }7\times 10^6 years ago.

A Scholarly Endeavor, a Profession, and a Craft

  • Scholarly: embedded in universities, funded by major agencies, theory-driven, peer-reviewed publications.
  • Profession: specialized knowledge, service to the community, autonomy, licensing/registry (e.g., Register of Professional Archaeologists, RPA).
  • Craft view: some see archaeology as a craft blending theory and hands-on practice (like pottery).

Archaeology versus Archeology

  • Spelling variants exist; archaeology (with -ae) is the longer form; archeology (shorter) is also used in some places.

Contextualizing Archaeology

  • Contexts: academia, industry (heritage/crm), politics, global social movements, and popular culture; projects often span multiple contexts.

Archaeology in the Context of Academia

  • Three basic models in universities:
    • Archaeology as a branch of anthropology (most common in North America).
    • Stand-alone archaeology departments.
    • Archaeology as courses within other departments.
  • Anthropology branches (examples):
    • Archaeology: past culture via material remains.
    • Cultural anthropology: contemporary cultures, long-term observation.
    • Biological (physical) anthropology: human biology and evolution.
  • Archaeology as liberal arts vs science vs humanities; degree pathway: B.A./B.S., M.A., Ph.D.; some two-year programs for heritage industry.
  • Research funding often from agencies like \text{NEH},\ \text NSF},\ \text SSHRC}.

Archaeology in the Context of Industry

  • Heritage industry functions include documenting, assessing, conserving, and presenting sites/objects (CRM is a major field).
  • Archaeologists collaborate with Indigenous groups, policymakers, tourism professionals, and educators; increasing role in advocacy and public presentation.
  • Heritage tourism: major economic activity (e.g., Valley of the Kings ≈ 2\times 10^6 visitors/year).
  • Authenticity concerns in living museums and archaeology-based presentations; criticism of sanitized pasts and archaeology-themed parks.

Archaeology in the Context of Politics

  • Three primary political contexts:
    1) National identity and symbolism of sites; 2) protection/investigation of heritage; 3) destruction of heritage for political purposes.
  • National symbols: Acropolis, Machu Picchu; Mayan sites in Mexico; Angkor; Great Zimbabwe.
  • Research portrayal can shape national identity (e.g., National Geographic slant).
  • Protection and legislation: international and national laws; Indigenous claims and treaties; archaeology used in legal claims.
  • Destruction: sites vandalized or destroyed by regimes or during conflicts (e.g., Bamiyan Buddhas, Tenochtitlan, Taliban actions).
  • Espionage: some archaeologists have served as covers for intelligence work (e.g., Morley, Lothrop).

Archaeology in the Context of Global Social Movements

  • Feminism: increased representation of women; challenges gender assumptions; expands research focus.
  • Indigenous empowerment: evidence from archaeology supports rights/titles; often linked to political negotiations and employment opportunities.
  • Environmental movement: archaeology informs sustainability and conservation; shows historical environmental impacts (e.g., irrigation and soil salinity).

Archaeology in the Context of Popular Culture

  • archaeology is highly visible in media (films, TV, advertising, fiction); often stereotypes archaeologists as treasure hunters.
  • Positive and negative effects: can raise interest and funding, but may distort methods and objectives; risks include sensationalism and bias toward Western perspectives.
  • Examples include living museums, advertising controversies (e.g., Coca-Cola at the Parthenon; beer ad at Machu Picchu).
  • Philosophical concern: popularity may undermine public understanding of science and the real aims of archaeology.

Archaeology and Popular Culture Box (Box 1.1) – Key Takeaways

  • Popular culture shapes perceptions of archaeology more than other sources.
  • Stereotypes can influence funding and policy decisions.
  • Holtorf’s work analyzes archaeology as a brand and media phenomenon.

Rationalizing Archaeology

  • Contemporary rationalizations (Table 1.5) include:
    • Provides context for current global events (e.g., warfare conditions).
    • Framework for collecting and interpreting data, including forensic applications.
    • Evaluates claims of Indigenous territory.
    • Assesses significance of heritage sites/objects.
    • Economic value via heritage/tourism and related industries.
    • Contributes to living in the modern world (awareness and solutions to 21st-century problems).
    • Supports other disciplines.
    • Determines which sites to conserve or excavate; vital to heritage tourism.
    • Addresses nuclear waste marking and long-term risk assessment.

Box 1.2 Archaeology and Nuclear Waste

  • Archaeologists advise on long-term marking for nuclear waste storage (10,000+ years horizon).
  • Recommendations include: multiple markers (symbols, pictures, languages); use natural materials; markers at eye level; monoliths with multilingual information; subsurface markers (ceramic discs).
  • Challenge: future decipherability of languages and symbols; combining several independent marking systems is advised.

Basic Concepts in Archaeology

  • Core concepts: culture, holism, deep time, evolution, reasoning by analogy, multiple frameworks.
  • Culture: learned, shared things people have, do, and think; can include objects, practices, beliefs; culture vs society distinction.
  • Spheres of culture: ecological, social, ideological.
  • Holism: interconnection of all cultural components; past culture understood through linkages among technology, economy, social/political structure, beliefs.
  • Deep time: vast temporal scale; in archaeology, long timelines since human cultural evidence.
  • Evolution: biological and cultural; changes in plant/animal domestication and human behavior over time.
  • Reasoning by analogy: using similarities to infer unknowns; ethnographic analogy, ethnoarchaeology, experimental archaeology as common methods; limitations increase with age.
  • Multiple frameworks: no single correct method; choices depend on goals, time, and resources; debates often stem from underlying assumptions about how cultures work.

Key Resources and Suggested Reading

  • A range of texts and journals on archaeology’s contexts (academia, heritage, politics, feminism, Indigenous archaeology, popular culture) for deeper study.

Notes on Figures, Boxes, and Tables

  • Figures (e.g., Parthenon, Machu Picchu) and tables (e.g., Tables 1.1–1.5) provide quick reference points for definitions, branches, and rationalizations.