Exhaustive Study Notes: The Crisis of the 1850s and the Lead-up to the American Civil War

The Compromise of 1850 and the Fugitive Slave Act

• The Dynamics of the Compromise: The legislation in the mid-19th century was designed as a series of five items to balance the interests of anti-slavery Whigs and pro-slavery Democrats. A compromise, by definition, is a situation where both sides receive a portion of what they want, yet neither side is fully satisfied.     * Provisions of the Compromise:         * Slavery was definitively allowed to continue in the American Southwest.         * The slave trade (though not slavery itself) was officially banned in Washington DC, a move intended to alleviate the embarrassment felt by politicians in the nation's capital.         * The Fugitive Slave Act was passed, which proved to be the most concerning and provocative item for Americans, particularly those residing in the North.

• The Fugitive Slave Act Details:     * Definition: The act stipulated the mandatory capture of runaway slaves and their return to their "rightful owners" in the South.     * Fugitive Slaves: This group consisted of individuals who had escaped their Southern plantations. The speaker mentions the Underground Railroad as the mechanism comprising stopping points that helped these runaways travel from Southern states through the North and into Canada.     * Complicity of the North: The act forced Northerners to become complicit in the institution of slavery. If a Southern slave hunter claimed a Black person in the North was a runaway, Northern authorities were legally required to comply.     * Lack of Due Process: Under the Act, the accused Black person was prohibited from providing any testimony on their own behalf.     * Penalties for Non-Cooperation: Northerners who refused to cooperate with slave hunters faced "major fines."     * The Case of Solomon Northup: Northerners feared the system would be used to kidnap free Black individuals in the North, citing the account of Solomon Northup as a prime example of this danger.     * Interstate Tension: Many Northern states had already banned slavery and resented being forced to cooperate with Northern slave hunters. This heightened political sectionalism, where Northerners began voting as a block against the Southern block.

The Collapse of the Whig Party and the Kansas Territory

• The Kansas-Nebraska Act of $1854$:     * The collapse of the Whig party began in $1854$ as a direct result of Congressional decisions regarding the Kansas Territory.     * Kansas was adjacent to Missouri and faced a similar situation to the Missouri crisis of $1820$: it contained both anti-slavery settlers and pro-slavery individuals who brought enslaved people with them.     * Stephen Douglas and Popular Sovereignty: Stephen Douglas, a Democrat, advocated for the principle of "popular sovereignty."         * Definition: Popular sovereignty is "the rule of the people," where the residents of a state or territory decide for themselves how to manage their affairs.         * Application: Douglas proposed that instead of the federal government admitting Kansas as a free state, the people of Kansas should vote to decide if they wanted to allow slavery.

• Violation of the Missouri Compromise: The Whig party had expected Kansas to be a free state because it was organized above the $36^{\circ} 30'$ parallel. According to the original Missouri Compromise, all territories above this line were to be free. However, Congress chose not to uphold that agreement in $1854$.

• Political Fallout: Following the announcement of the Kansas-Nebraska Act, members of the Whig party protested by leaving the party entirely. They refused to cooperate with Whig leadership, accusing them of failing to protect their anti-slavery interests.

"Bleeding Kansas" and the Rise of Radicalism

• Violence on the Ground: Once voting was authorized, pro-slavery forces and "Free Soilers" (anti-slavery settlers) began literal physical combat. Newspapers termed this conflict "Bleeding Kansas" in $1854$. Many historians view this as the actual beginning of the American Civil War.
• Dual Governance: Because of the fighting, Kansas failed to present a viable application for statehood. Two separate governments were established: a pro-slavery government in one capital and an anti-slavery government in another. Both claimed to be the legitimate authority.
• Statehood Delay: Kansas did not become a state until $1861$ (or $1862$ during the war), eventually entering as a free state.
• John Brown: A radical abolitionist who rose to popularity during the Bleeding Kansas crisis. He fought pro-slavery forces directly in Kansas before moving to Massachusetts. His goal was the immediate end of slavery.

The Election of $1856$ and New Political Coalitions

• The Power Vacuum: By the election of $1856$, the Whig party had collapsed and ceased to exist. The Democratic party remained, but various factions attempted to form coalitions to combat them.
• The Free Soil Ticket ($1854$): John Fremont ran on a ticket with the primary aim of ensuring Kansas remained free of slavery.
• The Know-Nothing Party: This group also attempted to take the national stage as a rival to the Democrats starting in $1854$.
• The Republican Party: This party eventually formed the most viable coalition. Abraham Lincoln, a lawyer from Illinois, emerged as a key figure in this party for the upcoming election of $1860$.
• Sectional Voting Patterns:     * In $1848$ and $1852$: There was no distinct North-South divide in voter turnout.     * In $1856$: A sharp sectional divide emerged. Fremont won many Northern states but zero slave-holding states. The Know-Nothing party secured $22\%$ of the popular vote.     * Atmosphere: By $1856$, the political situation was "unstable and volatile." The Whig party was gone, the Democrats were splintering into two factions, and the new Republican party adopted a platform explicitly denouncing the institution of slavery.

The Caning of Charles Sumner

• The Speech: Senator Charles Sumner of Massachusetts, sympathetic to the Republican party, delivered a speech titled "The Crime Against Kansas." He condemned Southern designs to force slavery on the rest of the nation and specifically insulted Senator Andrew Butler of South Carolina.
• The Attack: On May $22$, Preston Brooks (a South Carolina member of the House and Butler’s kinsman/cousin) entered the Senate with a cane and beat Sumner over the head to defend Butler’s honor.
• The Aftermath: Sumner was knocked unconscious and was unable to serve for the next three years due to his injuries.     * Northern Perspective: They viewed this as evidence of the South's "twisted and violent civilization," linking "Bleeding Kansas" to "Bleeding Sumner."     * Southern Perspective: Southerners considered Brooks a hero of "summary justice." Although Brooks resigned, he was promptly re-elected by South Carolinians in a special election.

Conflicting Interests in Congress

• Slaveholding Statistics: The vast majority of Southern delegates to Congress were slave owners themselves, creating a clear "slaveholding interest" and incentive to protect the institution. In contrast, zero politicians from Northern states owned slaves, leading to a complete lack of interest in supporting the institution.

The Lincoln-Douglas Debates ($1858$)

• The Context: The nation focused on the Illinois senatorial contest between Stephen Douglas (Democrat) and Abraham Lincoln (Republican).
• The Debates: The two candidates held a series of widely attended debates. Transcripts were published, and thousands of people would sit for many hours to listen.
• Lincoln’s Position: Slavery was morally wrong and must be prohibited from expanding into the Western territories. Notably, he did not argue for its abolition where it already existed at that time.
• Douglas’s Position: The U.S. had always been an awkward collection of free and slave states; the federal government should not mediate the issue. Instead, the people of individual states should decide using popular sovereignty.
• The "House Divided" Concept: Lincoln famously argued that the country could not survive divided "half free and half slave."

The Dred Scott Case ($1857$)

• The Background: Dred Scott was an enslaved man in St. Louis. His owner took him across the Mississippi River into Illinois and then into the Wisconsin territory before returning to St. Louis.
• The Legal Argument: With the help of a civil rights activist lawyer, Scott sued for freedom, arguing that because he had resided in a free territory (Wisconsin), he should be considered free.
• The Ruling: Chief Justice Roger Taney delivered the $7$-to-$2$ decision:     * Citizenship: Scott could not sue because Black Americans were "beings of an inferior order" and had "no rights which the white man was bound to respect."     * Home State Law: The Court ruled that Missouri law (slave state) determined his status, regardless of travel.     * Congressional Authority: Most importantly, Taney ruled that the U.S. Congress did not have the constitutional right to prohibit slavery in Western territories. This effectively meant the Republican platform of stopping slavery's expansion was unconstitutional.

John Brown’s Raid on Harpers Ferry ($1859$)

• The Raid: John Brown raised funds in Massachusetts and led $20$ men (including five African Americans) to capture the armory at Harpers Ferry, West Virginia.
• The Plan: Capture weapons and distribute them to slaves to trigger a massive insurrection. They seized the armory and rifle works.
• The Outcome: Local militia besieged the group. Ten of Brown’s men were killed; seven were captured, including Brown. No slaves participated in the revolt. Lincoln noted that it was an attempt by white men to start a revolt that the slaves refused to join.
• The Impact:     * South: Saw this as tangible evidence that Northerners were actively trying to incite slave rebellions.     * North: Many viewed Brown as a martyr. Ralph Waldo Emerson wrote a poem calling Brown a "new saint who will make the gallows glorious like the cross."     * Execution: John Brown was hanged for treason.

The Election of $1860$ and Secession

• Tensions: Southerners were furious over the non-compliance with fugitive slave laws, the rise of the Republican party, and the John Brown raid.
• Abraham Lincoln: Stood $6$ feet $4$ inches tall. He united a base of Whig defectors, Republicans, temperance advocates, and German immigrants.
• Democratic Split: The Democratic party splintered into three tickets: Northern Democrats, Southern Democrats, and the Constitutional Union Party.
• Turnout:     * Northern men: $82\%$ (highest ever).     * Southern men: $70\%$ (unprecedented for the South).
• The Results: Lincoln swept every Northern state except New Jersey. In $10$ out of $15$ slaveholding states, Lincoln’s name was not even allowed to appear on the ballot.
• Victory and Response: Lincoln secured enough electoral votes through the North alone to win the presidency. This confirmed Southern fears of Northern political dominance.
• The Secession Winter: Following the election and leading into March $1861$, Southern states began raising flags of independence and demanding secession from the Union.

Questions & Audience Interaction

• Instructor Check-in: The instructor paused mid-lecture to see if students were following along, requesting a "thumbs up" because no one had their cameras on, noting he felt "kind of alone."
• Attendance Call:     * Students present or responding: Brana, Adriana, Lorraine, Audrey, Henry (sent an axe emoji), Angela, Gavin, Anaya.     * Students absent or not responding: Annabeth, Carlo, Clayton, Erica, Marlene, Anthony Fly, Otto, Ariana, Addison, Anthony Smith, Kamala, Amber.     * Discussion on Emojis: The instructor questioned Henry about the meaning of the "axe" emoji, asking if it meant he was working hard or feeling angry.
• Clarification on Procedures: Brana asked if she needed to send an emoji or just speak to be marked present; the instructor confirmed speaking was sufficient.