Comprehensive Study Guide for 18th-Century Russian Literature

Characteristics of the Literary Process in the Early 18th Century

The 18th century in Russian literature represents an exhaustive transition prepared by the preceding developments of the 17th century, particularly the second half, which saw the formation of the Russian nation and state. This period was marked by increased social differentiation and an activation of democratic layers alongside the strengthening of the nobility. There was a heightened interest in the life of the average person and their household environment. The reformist activity of Peter I acted as the primary catalyst for change, intersecting with the enduring influence of Old Russian literature. Key trends included the growth of the individual's role in creative output, the development of descriptive realism, the emancipation of fiction, and the expansion of the readership.

The early decades of the 18th century are defined as a transitional period reflecting Peter I's transformations and the struggle between old and new tendencies, found predominantly in publicistic writing. During this time, the foundations of Classicism were laid, a movement that would come to dominate the middle of the century. This era also saw the rise of "folk literature" and the democratization of themes, centering on an increased interest in ordinary individuals rather than only hagiographic or royal figures.

"The Tale of the Russian Sailor Vasilii Koriotsky": The New Hero

"The Tale (Gistoryia) of the Russian Sailor Vasilii Koriotsky and the Fair Princess Heraclia of the Florentine Land" serves as a definitive case study for the Petrine era's literary shifts. It continues the 17th-century tradition of the household and adventure-picaresque tale but introduces a novel hero: the enterprising, successful, and educated sailor Vasilii. Typical of Peter I's era, the hero's advancement is predicated on his personal merits and mastery of "navigational science" rather than his noble birth. This aligns with the Petrine Table of Ranks, which suggested that talent and intellect, not "breed" (poroda), were the keys to success.

Vasilii is a synthesis of old and new: he remains an ideal of ancient piety, honoring his parents and seeking their blessing, yet he adapts rapidly to European "gallant" culture. He learns to sing arias, play the harp, and adopts a noble, platonic attitude toward love. In this text, love is no longer depicted as a "devilish obsession" but as an ideal, ennobling feeling. The language of the tale is a hybrid of folk elements (e.g., "udałoj mołodeç," "gosudar moj batyushka"), Slavicisms (e.g., "slyshav," "yako"), and barbarisms characteristic of the era (e.g., "arfa," "veksel," "shpaga," "ariya," "persona").

Feofan Prokopovich: Scholar, Publicist, and Preacher

Feofan Prokopovich ($1681\text{--}1736$) was the preeminent intellectual of the Petrine era. A graduate of the Kyiv-Mohyla Academy who continued his education in Poland and Rome, he was a polymath who studied theology, humanities, and exact sciences. Upon returning to Russia, he became Peter I's "right hand," particularly in ecclesiastical matters, seeking to subordinate church practice to secular interests. His library was unique for its time, containing books in multiple languages and spanning various branches of knowledge. He was or of the first to conduct scientific observations using telescopes and microscopes.

Prokopovich's sermons, or "Words," were potent tools for reformist propaganda. Titles like "Word on the Utility of Travel" ($1717$) defended educational journeys abroad, while "Laudatory Word on the Russian Fleet" ($1720$) celebrated maritime power. His style was clear and rhythmical, devoid of excessive rhetoric but deep in ideological content. He frequently acted as a satirist, famously comparing reactionary clerics to locusts with "great bellies and small wings." His "Spiritual Regulation" ($1721$) sharply criticized old church orders and ignorant bishops who viewed enlightenment as heresy.

Prokopovich's "Vladimir" and Petrine Theater

Prokopovich's tragicomedy "Vladimir" ($1705$) used the historical plot of Prince Vladimir's adoption of Christianity to allegorically support Petrine reforms. The reactionary pagan priests in the play—named Kuroyad (Chicken-eater), Piyar (Drinker), and Zherivol (Ox-devourer)—served as caricatures of the contemporary backward clergy. The play is significant for blending tragic and comedic elements and for its attempt to depict the psychological internal conflict of the protagonist as he transitions to a new moral ideal.

Simultaneously, Peter I sought to create a public, accessible theater in Moscow to educate and entertain. In $1702$, he invited a German troupe led by Johann Kunst. The first theater, the "Comedy House," was built on Red Square and seated $400$ spectators with ticket prices ranging from $3$ to $10$ kopecks. The repertoire was a medley of foreign dramas involving figures like Julius Caesar and Alexander the Great, alongside translations of Molière. Despite Peter's efforts, the theater was closed in $1706$ because it failed to provide enough contemporary, topical plays and suffered from clunky translations.

Antioch Kantemir: The First Secular Poet

Antioch Dmitrievich Kantemir ($1708\text{--}1744$) is regarded by Belinsky as the first to bring poetry into contact with life. A member of the "Learned Guard," Kantemir wrote nine major satires between $1729$ and $1739$. His first satire, "On Those Scornful of Learning: To My Mind," attacked the clerical party and reactionary nobility who opposed Peter's educational reforms. He depicted characters such as the hypocrite Criton and the ignorant nobleman Silvan to illustrate the vice of resisting progress.

In his second satire, "On the Envy and Pride of Ill-Tempered Nobles," Kantemir argued for the natural equality of men, famously stating that "Adam did not beget nobles." He posited that true nobility must be earned through service to the state, not inherited. Kantemir’s work is characterized by a rationalistic approach, a focus on "mind" as the supreme judge, and a vivid use of specific details from Russian life, despite his imitation of Horace and Boileau. He was a master of the satirical portrait, highlighting greed, gluttony, and the superficial adoption of Western fashion (e.g., the dandy Medor).

Vasilii Trediakovsky and the Verse Reform

Vasilii Kirillovich Trediakovsky ($1703\text{--}1769$) was the first to ground the reform of Russian versification in the properties of the Russian language, drawing inspiration from folk songs. In his "New and Brief Method for Composing Russian Verses" ($1735$), he proposed moving away from the syllabic system (borrowed from Polish/French) toward a tonic system based on the regular alternation of stressed and unstressed syllables. However, his reform was partial; he preferred the trochee and maintained certain syllabic habits.

Trediakovsky's literary output included the translation of Paul Tallemant's "Voyage to the Island of Love," which introduced light, secular themes of gallantry and sentimentalism to Russia. Late in his life, he published the epic "Tilemakhida" ($1766$), a translation of Fénelon's prose novel into Russian hexameter. Although the work was mocked by Catherine II for its heavy language, it contained sharp critiques of absolutism, emphasizing that "laws are sovereign over the king," and provided the structural foundation for future Russian translations of Homer.

Mikhail Lomonosov: The Theory of Three Styles

Mikhail Vasilyevich Lomonosov ($1711\text{--}1765$) formalized Russian Classicism through his theory of "Three Styles," outlined in the "Preface on the Utility of Church Books" ($1757$). He categorized Russian words into three groups based on their relationship to Church Slavonic and ordinary Russian. High Style—used for heroic poems and solemn odes—consisted of words common to both languages. Middle Style—for satires, tragedies, and elegies—consisted of common Russian words and some Church Slavonicisms. Low Style—for comedies, epigrams, and letters—consisted of native Russian words and colloquialisms.

Lomonosov's reform unified the literary language, excluding archaic obscurities and unnecessary foreign barbarisms. His own poetic practice was dominated by the solemn ode, which often focused on the image of Peter I as the "Ideal Monarch." For Lomonosov, Peter was a "builder, mariner, and hero," a figure of tireless labor. Lomonosov's odes on the accession of Empress Elizabeth ($1747$) and others served as "lessons" for monarchs, urging them to patronize sciences, arts, and maintain "silence" (peace).

Lomonosov's Scientific and Spiritual Poetry

Distinctly original was Lomonosov's scientific poetry, exemplified by "Letter on the Utility of Glass" ($1752$). In this didactic poem, he synthesized science, labor, and beauty, defending the value of glass—a material he studied personally at his factory in Ust-Ruditsa—against the destructive allure of gold. The poem covers the history of human discovery, highlighting the microscope, telescope, and Copernicus's heliocentric system.

His "Spiritual Odes," such as "Morning Meditation on the Greatness of God" and "Evening Meditation… on the Occasion of the Aurora Borealis," depict the universe through the lens of early enlightenment natural science rather than myth. These poems express awe at the "abyss of stars" and the "fiery waves" of the sun, celebrating the power of human reason to eventually uncover the laws of nature. Pushkin noted these works as eternal monuments of Russian literature.

Alexander Sumarokov: The Architect of Genre

Alexander Petrovich Sumarokov ($1717\text{--}1777$) was the primary theorist of Russian Classicism, whose "Epistles" were eventually merged into "Instruction for Those Wanting to Be Writers" ($1774$). Unlike Lomonosov, who prioritized the ode, Sumarokov argued for the equality of all genres, including tragedy, comedy, satire, and lyric songs. His tragedy "Dmitry Samozvanets" ($1771$) was highly political, depicting the overthrow of a tyrant. Though ostensibly about the 17th century, it was a warning to Catherine II that a monarch not loved by the people—or who violates their rights—is a "vile idol."

In comedy, Sumarokov wrote works like "The Guardian" (satirizing the usurer Chuzhekhvat) and his masterpiece "The Cuckold by Imagination." This later play featured provincial landowners Vikula and Khavronya, whose "naturalistic" and coarse speech, filled with proverbs, predated the provincial atmosphere of Fonvizin’s later comedies. Sumarokov also founded the first private journal, "Trudolyubivaya Pchela" (The Industrious Bee) in $1759$, which attacked serfdom's abuses and administrative corruption.

Satirical Journalism of 1769–1774

The late 18th century was the "golden age" of satirical journals. Catherine II founded "Vsyakaya Vsyachina" (All Sorts), advocating for a "smiling satire" that focused on universal human weaknesses rather than specific social vices. This was challenged by Nikolay Novikov’s "Truten" (The Drone), which argued that satire must be "stinging" and "targeted at individuals." Novikov's journal was famously radical, printing "Copies of Reports" from serf-owners to illustrate the brutal poverty of the peasantry.

Novikov's later journal "Zhivopisets" (The Painter) featured the "Fragment of a Journey to IT***," which depicted the devastating "Village of Ruined" (Derevnya Razorennaia). In "Letters to Phalaley," Novikov portrayed the domestic cruelty of landowners like Tryphon Pankratievich, who beat their wives "like pigs" but wailed upon their death. Novikov’s efforts eventually led to his arrest in $1792$ and a $15$-year sentence in Shlisselburg Fortress, of which he served four years.

Denis Fonvizin: The Social Comedy

Denis Ivanovich Fonvizin is best known for his masterpieces "The Brigadier" and "The Minor." "The Brigadier" ($1769$) satirized "Gallomania" (the obsession with French culture) through Ivanushka, who claimed his body was born in Russia but his spirit belonged to France. Fonvizin demonstrated that this cultural alienation led to the total neglect of duties toward one's homeland.

"The Minor" (Nedorosl, $1782$) is the first true Russian social comedy. It depicts the Skotinin and Prostakov families as the products of a "bestial" environment where serfdom has dehumanized both master and servant. The character Mitrofan represents the failure of reactionary, uneducated upbringing, while the positive character Starodum (Old-thinker) serves as the author's mouthpiece. Starodum contrasts the corrupted contemporary court of Catherine II with the rugged meritocracy of Peter I's era. Fonvizin’s publicist works, such as "Universal Court Grammar" and his "Letters from France," continued this sharp critique of social decay.

Ivan Krylov and the Mock-Heroic Tradition

Before becoming Russia's greatest fabulist, Ivan Krylov ($1769\text{--}1844$) was a daring satirist. His journal "Spirit Post" (Pochta Duhov) utilized a correspondence between gnomes and a sorcerer to satirize bureaucratic corruption and noble vanity. In the journal "The Spectator" ($1792$), he published "Kaib," a "Eastern tale" that mocked the hypocrisy of "enlightened" despots, suggesting that a monarch could be replaced by a "statue of ivory" and no one would notice.

In the realm of mock-heroic poetry, Vasily Maikov's "Elisej, or the Disturbed Bacchus" ($1771$) mixed high heroic style with the low life of a brawling tavern-haunter. Ippolit Bogdanovich’s "Dushenka" ($1783$) offered a more delicate, sentimental take on the mock-heroic, retelling the myth of Psyche and Cupid in a witty, ironical tone that influenced the development of light, "gallant" Russian poetry.

Nikolay Karamzin: Sentimentalism and Reform

Nikolay Mikhaylovich Karamzin ($1766\text{--}1826$) is the founder of Russian Sentimentalism. In the "Moscow Journal" and "Letters of a Russian Traveler," he emphasized emotion and the "private life" of the average person over the civic duty of Classicism. His famous phrase "and even peasant women know how to love," from "Poor Liza" ($1792$), signaled a major humanitarian shift in literature. Karamzin shifted the focus to psychological realism, describing the internal landscapes of his characters' souls.

Karamzin also executed a massive linguistic reform, seeking to create a "new style" that followed the "elegant" patterns of French prose but remained fundamentally Russian. He introduced numerous neologisms to describe abstract and psychological states (e.g., "promyshlennost," "vliyaniye," "utonchennyi," "zanimatelnyi"). His aim was to close the gap between written and spoken language for the educated gentry, moving away from Lomonosov's rigid three styles.

Alexander Radishchev: The Revolutionary Voice

Alexander Nikolaevich Radishchev ($1749\text{--}1802$) famously wrote "Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow" ($1790$), a work that Catherine II called "more dangerous than Pugachev." In this work, the "Traveler" observes various chapters of systemic abuse—forced labor in "Lyubani," the sale of serfs in "Gorodnya," and the judicial corruption in "Zaytsovo." Radishchev’s famous ode "Liberty" (included in the chapter "Tver") openly advocated for the revolutionary overthrow of tyrants by the people.

In his essay "Conversation on What Constitutes a Son of the Fatherland," Radishchev argued that neither the dandy nor the cruel landowner can claim the title of a "Patriot." Only a free, thinking person who serves the general good deserves this name, and since serfs are denied their humanity, the state is fundamentally flawed. Radishchev's work served as a "satirical call to revolt," predicting that a violent explosion of the people was inevitable if the chains of serfdom were not voluntarily removed by the nobility.

Questions & Discussion

Dialogue captured in the transcript includes the polemic between Novikov and Catherine II over the nature of satire. To Catherine's assertion in "Vsyakaya Vsyachina" that satire should be compassionate and not name names, Novikov's "Truten" responded by calling such an approach "love of vice" (poorokolyubie) rather than love of humanity (chelovekolyubie). He insisted that only targeted satire (na litso) could be effective. Furthermore, the transcript records the dialogue in Fonvizin’s "Brigadier" between Ivanushka and the Councilor, exposing the absurdity of those who despise their own motherland, and the sharp exchanges in Radishchev’s "Journey," such as the plowman’s dignified rejection of the Traveler’s pity in the chapter "Lyubani."