Midterm
Midterm Exam Info Packet
Unit 1.1- Study of Biology
• Characteristics of Life/Life Processes
o Nutrition- taking in and breaking down food
o Reproduction- creating new offspring
o Synthesis- building larger molecules from smaller molecules
o Excretion - releasing cellular waste
o Transport- absorption and circulation of materials
o Respiration- releasing energy from glucose molecules
o Regulation- control and coordination of the organism
Metabolism- all the chemical reactions that occur in an organism
• Organisms must carry out all of the life processes in order to be considered living things
• The only life process that is not required for an individual to survive- reproduction
• Cell Types of Cells- Eukaryotic vs. Prokaryotic
Eukaryotic Cells Prokaryotic Cells
• nucleus
• contains organelles
• plant and animal cells
• no nucleus
• no organelles
• bacterial cells
• Cell organelles- structures inside cells
• Cell Membrane- controls what enters and exits the cell
• Cytoplasm- liquid holding organelles together, transports substances throughout the cell
• Vacuole- storage of food and water
• Nucleus- contains genetic information
• Ribosome- synthesizes (makes) proteins
• Mitochondria- site of cellular respiration
• Chloroplast- site of photosynthesis
• Cell Wall- supports the cell and provides rigid shape and some protection
• Nucleolus- builds ribosomes
• Types of Eukaryotic Cells-Plant Cell vs. Animal Cells
Plant Cell Animal Cell
• contains cell wall & chloroplast
• no cell wall & no chloroplast; has centrioles
• Levels of organization of multicellular organisms
Organelles→Cells→Tissues→Organs→OrganSystem→Organism
• Unicellular organisms use organelles to help carry out life processes whereas multicellular organisms use
organs to help them carry out the life functions
Unit 1.2- Nutrition and Biochemistry
• Inorganic vs. organic
o Organic molecules- contain BOTH carbon and hydrogen
▪ examples: glucose (C6H12O6), protein, amino acids, carbs, lipids, nucleic acids
(DNA/RNA)
o Inorganic molecules- DO NOT contain both carbon and hydrogen
▪ Examples: water (H2O), carbon dioxide (CO2), salt (NaCl)
• Dehydration Synthesis vs. hydrolysis reactions
o Dehydration synthesis- (building) small molecules combine to make large molecules
o Hydrolysis-(digestion) break apart large molecules into smaller molecules
• Monomers are small organic molecules that make up polymers (large organic molecules.
• Three major organic molecules a.k.a. biomolecules a.k.a. macromolecules (Carbs, Proteins, Lipids)
Polymer
(large organic
molecule)
Monomer or
building blocks
Main function Examples of
molecules
Examples of
food sources
Carbohydrates simple sugars Main source of
quick energy
glucose, fructose
starch, glycerol
bread, pasta,
Proteins
amino acids build and repair
tissue, speed up
chemical
reactions, help
fight disease
enzymes,
hormones,
antibodies
meat, eggs,
cheese
Lipids
fatty acids and
glycerol
Energy storage,
cushions organs
phospholipids,
cholesterol
olive oil, nuts,
meat
Unit 1.3- Inquiry and Design
• Steps of the scientific method
1. Determine a problem (question)
2. Do research on the topic
3. Form a hypothesis (a prediction of the outcome - not a question)
Example: an increase in fertilizer will cause the plant to grow taller
4. Design an experiment
5. Collect and analyze the data
6. Draw a conclusion
• Designing a controlled experiment
o Independent vs. dependent variables
▪ Independent variable- variable
that is being tested (Amount of
fertilizer)
▪ Dependent variable- what is
being measured (Example: Plant
height)
o Difference between Control and
experimental group
▪ Control group- group that does not receive the independent variable (think “normal”
or “no” IV group)
• Example: Plants that do not receive fertilizer
▪ Experimental group- group that receives the independent variable
• Example: Plants that receive different amounts of fertilizer
o All other conditions must be kept constant in order to know if the changes were truly a
result of the independent variable.
▪ Examples: Amount of light, amount of water, amount of sunlight. If we are testing
the effect of fertilizer on plant height, the only thing that we should be changing
with the plants is the amount of fertilizer
o Obtaining valid results
▪ To make the results of an experiment MORE VALID always
1. Repeat the experiment
2. Increase sample size
Unit 1.4- Enzymes
• Enzymes;
o are a category of proteins.
o are biological catalysts, meaning they speed up chemical reactions without being used up.
o perform chemical reactions, such as digestion (break apart) or synthesis (combine).
o fit their substrate like a lock-and-key. In other words, they have a specific shape to
perform a specific function.
o function the best at a certain temperature or pH called the optimum.
• Substrate or Reactant - what the enzyme binds with at the start of a reaction
• Active site - the location on the enzyme where the substrate binds
• Enzyme-substrate complex - the name for the combination of the enzyme and the substrate
• Product - what is created from the chemical reaction
• Temperature: Enzymes will denature (lose their shape and no longer function) if the temperature
is past the optimum.
• pH: Enzymes will denature (lose their shape and no
longer function) if the pH is above or below the
optimum.
Unit 2.1-Cellular Respiration and Body Systems
Cell Respiration
• Location in a cell: mitochondria (organelle)
• Equation:
• ALL organisms carry out cellular respiration
• Aerobic vs. anaerobic respiration
o Aerobic respiration - regular cell respiration that creates 36-38 ATP
o Anaerobic respiration - occurs if there is no oxygen present and only creates 2 ATP
▪AlcoholFermentationinYeast:C6H12O6→CO2+alcohol+2ATP
▪LacticAcidFermentationinAnimals:C6H12O6→lacticacid+2ATP
• Causes muscle fatigue during exercise
In order for the reactants of cell respiration to enter the cell and for the products to leave, molecules
must move across the cell membrane
• Cell membrane- controls what enters and exits
o Is selectively permeable, meaning small and nonpolar molecules can enter and exit while large and
charged or polar molecules cannot
• Parts of the cell membrane
Phosphate head (hydrophilic-likes water) -D
Lipid tail (hydrophobic-afraid of water)- C
Receptor protein - A
Transport protein -B
• Types of proteins and function of each
o Receptor Proteins: receive messages from outside the cell
o Transport Proteins: helps substances move through cell membrane
o Surface Proteins: acts as a maker to identify each cell like a nametag
• Body Systems
o Circulatory
▪ Includes the heart, blood vessels (veins, arteries, and capillaries,) and blood
▪ Main function: transport oxygen and nutrients to cells and waste away from cells
o Digestive
▪ Includes the mouth, stomach and small intestines (and villi in the small intestine)
▪ Main function: break down food into molecules small enough to diffuse(absorption)
into and be used by cells
▪ In the mouth, chewing crushes food and enzymes break down starch into simple
sugars
▪ In the stomach, enzymes and stomach acid break down protein into amino acids
▪ In the small intestines, enzymes finish breaking down all food
• Food molecules pass through the villi and are absorbed into the blood via the
capillaries
• Next, the circulatory system will transport the glucose to the body cells to
be used for cellular respiration
o Respiratory
▪ Includes the lungs (and the alveoli)
▪ Main function: gas exchange
▪ In the lungs, the alveoli are surrounded by capillaries
• The oxygen diffuses into the blood (lungs to capillaries)
o Next, the circulatory system will transport the oxygen to the body
cells to be used for cellular respiration
o The circulatory system will also transport the carbon dioxide waste
from cellular respiration to the lungs
• The carbon dioxide diffuses out of the blood (capillaries to lungs)
o Excretory
▪ Includes the skin, lungs, and urinary system (kidneys and bladder)
▪ Main function: excretion (removal of waste)
▪ In the kidneys, blood is filtered and waste is transported to the bladder to be
removed
o During exercise, the your heart beats faster increasing pulse rate (circulatory system)
▪ This allows your body to transport oxygen and glucose to your cells faster. Your
cells need oxygen and glucose faster during exercise for cellular respiration which
makes ATP.
o During exercise, your breathing rate and depth of breathing increase too (respiratory
system)
▪ This allows your body to take in more oxygen and remove carbon dioxide faster.
Nervous System vs. Endocrine System
• Both work to regulate or control body systems
• Send messages
• Nervous System- Made up of Nerves. Sends messages along nerve cells
• Endocrine System- system of glands. Sends messages (hormones) through the bloodstream
*Remember both neurotransmitters and hormones are proteins and have a specific shape. they would
need to fit properly with the receptor protein on the cell membrane to transmit their signal
Both Nervous and Endocrine System work through
Feedback Mechanisms
Examples of Negative Feedback Mechanisms
• Blood sugar regulation
• Regulating Body Temperature
• Regulating water levels in the blood
Unit 2.2 Immune System
• Protects the body from disease or foreign
invaders (pathogen)
• Immune Response
• Antigen causes or stimulates the immune response
• White blood cells produce antibodies (proteins) specific to that antigen
• Memory Cells are produced to protect from future invasion
• Vaccine- contain dead or weakened version of virus- stimulates antibody production
• Active Immunity vs. Passive Immunity
Unit 3.1- Cell Division
• DNA is stored genetic information. It is located in the nucleus of cells. It can be organized into
genes and chromosomes
• DNA monomers= nucleotides
• DNA is a double helix. The genetic information is contained in the order of the nitrogenous bases
• Cell Cycle
o Interphase:
▪ G1-cell grows
▪ S-DNA Replicates
▪ G2- cell prepares for division
o Cell Division:
▪ Mitosis ( Division of nucleus)
▪ Cytokinesis (Splitting of cytoplasm)
• S-phase- DNA Replicates (copies itself) by untwisting,
unzipping and then adding in complementary (A-T, G-C)
nucleotides to the exposed bases. Result is 2 identical copies of DNA
Endocrine System, Nervous System and Feedback Mechanisms
The endocrine system produces hormones in various glands. What type of biomolecule are hormones? Hormones are Proteins What is the function of hormones? Hormones send chemical messages or signals in the body How do hormones travel from one part of the body to another? Through the bloodstream Explain how the shape of a hormone compares to the receptor protein it must bind to. The shape of the hormone is specific to the protein receptor it must bind to. They are complementary
and fit together like a lock and key
How does the Nervous System send signals through the body?_The nervous system sends signals by
ending impulses along nerve cells/neurons
Identify one similarity and one difference between the endocrine system and nervous system
Similarities:
• Regulate the body to maintain homeostasis
• Work through a stimulus response mechanism
• Have chemical messengers and protein receptors involved
Differences:
Endocrine system Nervous system
• Sends messages using hormones
• Hormones travel through blood
• Sends messages using impulses
• Impulses travel along nerves
The nervous and endocrine system both work to regulate the body through feedback mechanisms. Explain how the insulin and glucagon feedback mechanism works to maintain homeostasis
The nervous system detects high glucose levels. Insulin is released from the pancreas when
blood glucose levels are high. Insulin lowers blood glucose levels by allowing glucose to
enter the cells.
The nervous system detects low blood glucose levels. Glucagon is released from the liver
when blood glucose levels are low.
The diagram to the right shows a feedback mechanism that occurs in the body. Based on the model, describe how two body systems work together to regulate body temperature.
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Based on the model below, describe how nervous and endocrine system would work together to try to maintain a normal water level in the blood when an athlete is dehydrated
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Immune System
1. What is a pathogen? A disease causing organism or virus which prevents the body from
maintaining homeostasis. Also known as a foreign invader
2. What is an antigen? A protein found on the surface of a pathogen that causes (stimulates) the body to have an immune response. It marks the pathogen as “not self” (foreign invader).
3. Label the antigens on the picture to the right.
4. Give two examples of pathogens: Virus, Parasite, Funghi, Bacteria
5. Identify the role the antigen plays in the immune response. a. The antigen (on a pathogen or in a vaccine) triggers/stimulates or causes the
Immune Response. i. The Immune response means the white blood cells are destroying the
foreign invader and producing antibodies (and memory cells)
6. Identify two jobs of the white blood cells in the immune response. a. A white blood cells engulf and destroy (digest) foreign invaders b. white blood cells produce antibodies (and memory cells in the process)
7. What type of molecules are antibodies? Proteins
8. What is the role of antibodies in the immune system?
a. First, antibodies will attach to the antigens on the surface of the pathogen (foreign invader)
b. Then, antibodies Immobilize and mark the pathogen to allow the white blood cells to destroy the pathogen.
9. Draw an antibody that would bind to the viral antigen in the picture above. Explain your drawing.
a. The antibody will fit the antigen like a “puzzle piece”. The shapes should be complementary in order to bind!
10. Explain why you will be immune to the chicken pox virus after having the chicken pox, , but you will not be immune to the swine flu virus after having the chicken pox.
Antibodies are specific to a certain antigen. In other words, the antibody produced for the chickenpox antigen is specific and complanetary to only the chicken pox antigen!
While exposed to chicken pox, the body produced antibodies specific to the antigens on the chickenpox virus and also produced memory cells for that antigen!
The memory cells will allow the body to recognize and respond to the chickenpox virus faster next time (protecting against future invasions of chickenpox).
The chickenpox antibodies will not be able to bind to the swine flu antigens (because they would be shaped differently) and therefore will not be able to protect against the swine flu.
11. Complete the chart to compare and contrast Active Immunity and Passive Immunity
Active Immunity Both Passive Immunity
Protection lasts longer b/c body MAKES memory cells and antibodies are made by individual Acquired in two ways:
• Being exposed & getting sick
• Given vaccine
Specific to a disease pathogen Helps protect you from getting sick
Temporary protection b/c Individual Does NOT make memory cells since antibodies are given Acquired in two ways:
• Mother to child (pregnancy and breastfeeding)
• Injected
12. Describe what is contained in a vaccine.
a. A vaccine contains a dead or weakened form of the virus
13. Explain how a vaccine can protect an individual from becoming infected with the actual disease.
The dead or weakened form of the virus still contains antigens on the surface. Theantigensstimulatetheimmuneresponse→whitebloodcellswillproduceantibodies specific to the antigens on the surface of the dead or weakened virus.
The immune system will also produce memory cells which will protect us if we ever come into contact with the virus in real life.
14. What are allergies? Allergies are an overreaction of the immune system or an abnormal response of the Immune System.
The body has an immune response to these harmless environmental substances (will not try to harm the body) as if the substances were trying to attack the body.
15. Identify any three substances that could cause an allergic reaction. Pollen, pet dander, bee stings, medication, food
16. Explain why individuals who have had organ transplants have to take medication that suppresses the immune system.
The difference between the donor organ and the recipient The recipient's immune response to the donor organ
The surface proteins (antigens) on the donor organ cells will not be identical to the recipient's surface proteins.
Because the surface proteins are different, the immune system will not recognize the proteins and mistake the organ as a foreign invader causing the immune system to attack the organ.
Individuals who have had organ transplants must be on immunosuppressant drugs to reduce the immune system’s attack on the new organ.
17. What virus leads to AIDS HIV (human immunodeficiency virus)
18. How does HIV affect the immune system? a.HIVattacksthecellsoftheimmunesystem(WhiteBloodCells→WBC).b. HIV wipes out the immune system by killing the WBC, and therefore, the body can no
longer fight diseases c. A person might die from infection from other pathogens because the immune system is
so weak! d. Our immune system is unable to attack and completely clear HIV from the body.
19. Use the diagram below to identify the labeled parts below with the scientific name.
Foreign substance = Pathogen Cell A = White blood cell Specific proteins = antibodies Cell B = White blood cells
Sub Topic: Cellular Respiration
1. Write the equation for aerobic cellular respiration. (words or Chemical Formula) and Color the organic reactant and product RED. (remember energy is stored in organic molecules)
C6H12O6 + O2 → CO2 + H2O + ATP
OR
Glucose + Oxygen → Carbon dioxide + Water + ATP
2. Why is it important to know which molecules are organic? (hint: What is stored in the bonds of organic molecules) organic molecules contain ENERGY in their bonds
3. Where does cellular respiration occur in the cells? (organelle) ___Mitochondria_____
4. Remember: ALL organisms (and cells) need energy so must perform cellular respiration.
5. Where is the energy stored in glucose? In the chemical bonds ___________
6. What are the two main differences between aerobic respiration and anaerobic respiration?
a. In aerobic Respiration glucose is broken down WITH the use of oxygen BUT in anaerobic respiration glucose is broken down WITHOUT the use of oxygen.
b. Aerobic respiration produces more ATP (38 ATP) BUT anaerobic respiration produces less ATP (only 2 ATP)
7. Anaerobic respiration (anaerobic glycolysis) results in muscle fatigue in the muscle cells of animals. What waste product of anaerobic respiration signals the cell of fatigue? Lactic Acid
Sub Topic: Cell Membrane
8. What is the function of the cell membrane? (all 3 functions)
a. To act as a barrier separating inside the cell from outside the cell
b. Communication between cells
c. Transport through the cell membrane
9. Complete the cell membrane model below by adding the following:
In the boxes…
1 The function of each part of the membrane
2 The structures shown below
1 Transport proteins
2 Carbohydrate chains
3 Phospholipids
4 Receptor Proteins
Sub Topic: Body Systems
Circulatory, Digestive, Respiratory and Excretory Systems
10. Use one or two words to describe the function of each of the following systems.
a. Circulatory System __transport materials
b. Digestive System ____break down into useable pieces
c. Respiratory System ____gas exchange at alveoli
11. How do the digestive system and circulatory system work together to supply the body cells with the materials needed for cellular respiration? Write or show (model or flow chart)
In your response, be sure to:
1 identify the materials needed (provided by the digestive system).
2 Explain how they are supplied to the cell. Refer to important structures in each system.
The digestive system breaks down food and provides the body with nutrients. The nutrient glucose diffuses from the villi in the small intestine into the capillaries of the circulatory system. The circulatory system transports glucose to the body cells where the glucose diffuses from the circulatory system into the cells. Mitochondria uses glucose for cell respiration to produce the high energy molecule ATP.
12. How do the respiratory system and circulatory system work together to supply the body cells with the materials needed for cellular respiration? Write or show (model or flow chart)
In your response, be sure to:
3 identify the materials needed (provided by the respiratory system).
4 Explain how they are supplied to the cell. Refer to important structures in each system.
The respiratory system takes in oxygen from the atmosphere through the nasal cavity. The oxygen diffuses from the alveoli into the capillaries of the circulatory system. The circulatory system transports the oxygen to the cells where the oxygen diffuses from the circulatory system into the cells. The Mitochondria in the cells use the oxygen for cellular respiration cell respiration to produce the high energy molecule ATP.
13. Describe at least ONE change that occurs in the body during/after exercise that helps the body maintain homeostasis.
Adrenaline levels rise, which stimulates the heart to beat faster. Increases pulse rate and increasing blood flow. Breathing gets faster but also deeper. Muscles get sore.
14. Explain why this change is necessary to help to maintain homeostasis during/after exercise?
Exercise causes a greater energy demand in muscle cells. Oxygen is used up more rapidly during cellular respiration and more carbon dioxide is produced as a waste product because energy is used up quicker.
15. Where does the absorption of glucose from the digestive system into the circulatory system occur in the human body?
From the villi in the small intestine (high concentration of glucose in SI) to the capillaries and enters the bloodstream.
16. Where does gas exchange occur in the human body?
a. From respiratory system to circulatory system _From alveoli in lungs to capillaries
b. From circulatory system to cell from capillaries across cell membrane
17. What is the main function of the Excretory system?
removes the gaseous and liquid waste produced by cellular activities
18. What are the 4 main structures of the Excretory system and what waste is removed from each structure?
Main Structure | Waste Removed |
|---|---|
Lungs | Carbon dioxide (CO2) |
Skin | Water + salt + urea = sweat |
Kidneys | Water + salt+ urea = URINE |
Liver | Detoxifies poisons like ammonia and alcohol |
19. What is the function of the Urinary System? To remove metabolic waste ( made from chemical reactions) from the blood while maintaining proper blood volume
20. How does the kidney “clean” the blood? Describe the function of the Loop of Henle.
Plasma is pushed out of blood capillaries and into the nephron of the kidney. As blood flows through nephron important and useful materials are returned to the blood. Loop of Henle reabsorbs the water. The longer the Loop the more water can be reabsorbed
21. Extend your thinking:
a. Glucose is not normally one of the waste products removed by the kidneys. Why would glucose be found in the urine of a young girl? Describe the cause and effect of Type 1 Diabetes.
Glucose could be found in the urine of a young girl if she is unable to produce insulin, a hormone that regulates the intake of glucose from blood stream to cells for respiration.
Type 1 Diabetes is caused by damage to the BETA cells in the Pancreas that normally produce insulin. When the body’s own immune cells attack and damage these BETA cells no insulin can be made so the key that opens the door for sugar to pass into the cell stays closed and blood sugar levels stay high
b. Why would glucose be found in the urine of an adult? Describe the cause and effect of Type 2 Diabetes
Glucose can be found in the urine of an adult when their insulin is not working properly. Type 2 Diabetes is a disorder of the cell membrane. Even though the BETA cells of the pancreas make and distribute insulin into the blood stream, the insulin is either incorrectly made or not recognized by the cell’s insulin receptors. When this happens, insulin cannot attach to the receptor protein and the door to allow glucose into the cell does not open. Excess sugar in the blood can lead to low energy, poor circulation and cell damage.
22. What question do you have about the topics covered in this study guide? (write at least 2)
Scientific Method & Design and Enzyme Reactions
Topic 3 - Scientific Method & Design
Experimental Variables
1. Identify and describe the 3 different types of variables in an experiment.
1. Independent Variable - variable that is being tested (the cause)
2. Dependent Variable - the variable that is being measured (effect or change as a result of independent variable)
3. Controlled Variables - all variables other than the independent variable that are kept constant in the experiment (also known as factors kept constant)
Experimental Design
2. Review the expectations for writing a scientific problem, hypothesis and method.
3. Identity the correct tool for each type of measurement by completing the table below.
Measurement | Tool(s) | Unit |
|---|---|---|
Length | Metric Ruler or Meter Stick | Base Unit Meter (m) cm & mm also used |
Volume | Graduated cylinder & beakers | Base Unit Liter (L) mL |
Mass | Electric or Triple Beam Balance | Grams (g) |
Temperature | Centigrate or Celcelus Thermometer | Celcius |
Experimental Validity
4. Which two activities help to increase the validity of an experiment?
a. Retest the experiment (If the experiment can be replicated and produce the same result. The results are thought to be more reliable (trustworthy).)
b. Increase the sample size (Including more test subjects in the experimental and control groups will reduce the impact of outliers on the overall experimental data)
Topic 4 - Enzyme Reactions
Enzyme Basics - Structure and Function
5. What type of organic molecule is an enzyme? Protein
6. What are the building blocks of enzymes? amino acids
7. What is the function of an enzyme? To help with chemical reactions (catalyze or speed up reaction)
8. Label the digestion reaction below using the following terms:
1 enzyme | 2 active site | 3 substrate | 4 products | 5 Enzyme-substrate complex |
|---|
Properties of Enzymes
9. What does the lock and key model explain? Enzymes have a specific shape for the substrate they work on like a lock(enzyme) has a specific key (substrate)
10. Based on your notes, what are the two important properties of enzymes?
a. Specific Shape - Enzymes have a specific shape which determines their function (the substrate they bind with)
b. Used Temporarily - Enzymes are not chemically changed by a reactions and therefore are reusable or used only temporarily bond to substrates
11. What does denature mean and how does it impact enzyme activity?
Denature means to unfold and lose shape, and if an enzyme is denatured it can no longer function
Factors that affect enzymes
12. How does increasing temperature up to the optimal temperature (low to optimal) affect enzyme activity? Why?
Increasing temperature from a lower temperature up to the optimal….
- Increases enzyme activity
- because the increase in temperature speeds up the movement of enzymes & substrates which causes more collisions and faster chemical reactions.
13. How does increased temperature above the optimal temperature affect enzyme activity? Why?
Increased temperature above optimal….
- decreases the enzyme activity
- because as the temperature increases past the optimal (best) temperature for a specific enzyme then the enzyme starts to denature (unfold and lose its shape) and enzyme activity decreases because the active site is changed and the enzyme cannot fit with the substrate therefore the chemical reaction slows down/stops.
14. Draw a graph showing representing an enzyme that works best at 37OC
15. How does a change in pH away from optimal affect enzyme activity? Why?
A change in pH away from the optimal pH, decreases the enzyme activity, because a change in pH from the optimal level denatures the enzyme.
1. Name and describe the characteristics that all living things possess. (characteristics of life)
1. Living things are composed of (made) of one or more cells
2. Living things have a metabolism that allows them to carry out the life functions
3. Living things require energy to maintain homeostasis
2. What are the 3 parts of cell theory?
1. All living things are composed of one or more cells
2. Cells are the basic units of structure and function in living things
3. New cells are produced from existing cells
3. Circle to identify each cell below as prokaryotic or eukaryotic. State one reason why you identified it the way you did (your evidence)
 | |
|---|---|
Eukaryotic | Prokaryotic |
Evidence Have a nucleus Have membrane bound organelles Larger in size | Evidence Do not have a nucleus Do not have membrane bound organelles Smaller in size |
4. State two structural similarities between all cells (prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells).
All cells have a cell membrane, DNA and ribosomes and cytoplasm
Unicellular vs Multicellular Organisms
5. Unicellular organisms’ level of organization → cell structures & organelles → cells
6. Complete the Multicellular organisms’ level of organization below
organelles → Cells → tissues → organs → organ systems → organism
Eukaryotic Cell Structures
7. Complete the chart below, by listing the structure name or main function of each cell part.
Cell Structure | Main Function | Word Association |
|---|---|---|
Ribosome | Synthesize proteins | Build, make Amino acids |
Cell Membrane | ● Separates the inside from outside of the cell ● Controls transport of materials into & out of the cell ● Recognizes and responds to chemical signals | Barrier |
Mitochondria | Produces ATP from glucose through the process of cellular respiration | Energy, ATP |
Chloroplast | Produces glucose (food) through the process of Photosynthesis | Autotroph, glucose |
Cell Wall | Surrounds the cell membrane of a plant cell, provides protection and support to the plant cell | Made of cellulose, strong, rigid |
Nucleus | Contains DNA instructions to make materials cells need when the cell needs them | Genetics material Control regulate |
Vacuole | Stores materials such as water and food | Large in plants, small in animals |
Cytoplasm | The jellylike substance inside the cells. | Plasma |
Types of Eukaryotic Cells
8. Draw & label a simple plant & animal cell
Labeled Plant Cell Model:  | Labeled Animal Cell Model:  |
|---|
9. Both plant cells & animal cells are eukaryotic cells. Identify 3 pieces of evidence to support the claim that plant cells have structural differences from animal cells.
1. Plant cells contain chloroplasts while animal cells do not
2. Plant cells have a cell wall while animal cells do not
3. Plant cells have one large vacuole while animal cells have many small vacuoles
Life Functions & Processes
10. Complete the chart outlining the various life processes.
Life Function/Process | Description |
|---|---|
Cellular Respiration | Process (in the mitochondria) by which energy is released from food |
Synthesis | “To combine” - Process by which large molecules are produced from the combination of small molecules. |
Nutrition | To obtain (get) and break down (digest) food into smaller pieces that are usable by cells |
Reproduction | To make more offspring |
Excretion | Removal of waste substances produced in the cells |
Transport | Moving material around in an organism or cell |
Growth | To increase in cell size or increase in cell number |
Regulate | Control & coordination of activities in an organism to maintain homeostasis. |
Classifying Organisms
11. Which two levels are used when assigning scientific names for organisms? Genus and species
12. Which taxonomic level has the most biodiversity (least similarities)? Kingdom (could be Domain too)
13. Which level has the least biodiversity (most similarities)? Species
Topic 2 - General Biochemistry
10. Know the difference between organic compounds and inorganic compounds.
a. Define Organic: substance that contains both carbon and hydrogen atoms bonded
i. Example of an organic compound: glucose or any example of a biomolecule (any carbohydrate, protein, lipid, or nucleic acid)
b. Define Inorganic: substance that does not contain both carbon and hydrogen atoms
i. Example of an inorganic compound: water H20 (contains only hydrogen)
Synthesis vs Digestions
11. What is a chemical change? a transformation (change) that converts one or more substances into new substances with different chemical properties through chemical reactions involving the breaking and formation of chemical bonds and the rearrangement of atoms
12. Label the reactants and products as monomers or polymers
Monomers Trimer/polymer
13. Is the chemical reaction above a synthesis reaction or a digestion reaction? Explain your reasoning
Synthesis (dehydration synthesis) because monomers are being combined to form a larger molecule
REMEMBER: Synthesis starts small
14. Label the reactants and products as monomers or polymers
Trimer/polymer Monomers
15. Is the chemical reaction above a synthesis reaction or a digestion reaction? Explain your reasoning
Digestion (hydrolysis) because a larger molecule is being broken down into monomers
Large to smaller molecules
16. Fill in the chart below using your notes on biomolecules
Biomolecules | Monomer subunit/ building block(s) | Example Molecules (large & small) | Functions/ Purposes within an organism |
|---|---|---|---|
Carbohydrates | Monosaccharides (ex. glucose, fructose, simple sugars) | Starch Glycogen Cellulose Chitin Glucose Sucrose | - Quick & stored of energy - Builds structures |
Lipids | Fatty acids & Glycerol | Body fat Phospholipids | - Energy storage - Phospholipids make up cell membrane |
Proteins | Amino Acids | 1. Hormones 2. Antibody 3. Enzymes 4. Muscle | - Sends Chemical signals (hormones) - Helps fight infections - Helps with all chemical reactions - Allows movement |
Indicator | Tests for the presence of.. | Positive Color Change |
|---|---|---|
Iodine | starch | From amber to blue/black |
Biuret’s Solution | Protein | From blue to purple |
Benedict’s Solution | Glucose | From blue to red/orange with heat |
A) breaks down several other types of food in the stomach
B) is involved in other reactions when the temperature and pH are idea
C) helps in the synthesis of complex sugars during autotrophic nutrition
D) is not involved in other types of reactions because enzymes are specific
1. In humans, lactose is broken down into glucose and galactose in the presence of a particular enzyme. It is most likely that the enzyme that breaks down lactose
A) cellulose molecules are too big to be absorbed into cells B) humans have enzymes to break down starch, but not cellulose C) humans have only starch-digesting ribosomes in their digestive system D) humans convert excess cellulose to glucose
2. Cellulose is the chemical name for the fiber found in fruits and vegetables. Cellulose is similar in structure to starch. It is most likely that humans can digest starch but not cellulose because
A) enzymes that function within the circulatory system
B) red blood cells' ability to fight infections C) white blood cells' ability to carry oxygen to the
body D) DNA that controls starch digestion in the
circulatory system
3. The body's inability to regulate blood pH could affect
A) the enzyme is digested in those locations B) no protein molecules are located in the small intestine or the mouth C) the enzyme changes to fit different molecules in different locations D) the stomach may have a more suitable environment for the enzyme to work
4. An enzyme that rapidly breaks down a protein molecule in the stomach may break down that same protein much more slowly in the small intestine or mouth because
A) 1 and 5 B) 2 and 4 C) 3 and 2 D) 4 and 3
5. Some structural formulas of organic molecules are shown below.
Which structural formulas represent carbohydrate molecules?
A) converted into starch by dehydration synthesis and stored in roots
B) converted into cellulose by hydrolysis and stored in leaves
C) used as catalysts for metabolic activity D) used as a raw material for photosynthesis
6. How are glucose molecules produced by green plants usually processed?
7. Base your answer to the following question on the two chemical reactions shown below.
A) glycerol molecule B) monosaccharide C) dipeptide molecule D) polymer
Letter B represents a
A) A protein is a long chain of amino acids folded into a specific shape.
B) A protein is a long chain of simple sugars folded into a specific shape.
C) A protein is made of amino acids synthesized into a short, circular chain.
D) A protein is made of simple sugars synthesized into a short, circular chain.
8. Mad cow disease is a fatal disease that destroys brain tissue. Researchers have found that a prion protein, which is an abnormally constructed molecule, is responsible. Which statement best describes the characteristics a protein must have to function correctly?
A) nucleus and ribosomes B) cell membrane and nucleus C) chloroplasts and cell membrane D) mitochondria and chloroplasts
9. The structures most directly involved in the synthesis of cellular proteins are the
A) amount of energy available for synthesis of the protein
B) kind and sequence of amino acids in the protein C) type and number of DNA molecules in a cell D) mistakes made when the DNA is copied
10. The shape of a protein is most directly determined by the
A) the digestion of the amino acids that make up the proteins
B) the synthesis of a protein with different simple sugars
C) removal of the gene that codes for the production of the protein
D) an internal factor in the body, such as a temperature increase
11. In the diagram below, X represents a process that causes a protein to unfold and stop functioning.
Process X is most likely caused by
12. State one reason why a human heart muscle cell would probably contain a higher proportion of mitochondria than a skin cell.
13. Base your answer to the following question on the diagram below and on your knowledge of biology. The diagram represents a human enzyme.
Draw a molecule that would most likely be able to interact with this enzyme.
14. Today, many diseases have been linked to mutations that cause mitochondria to fail. Patients who suffer from mitochondrial diseases may suffer from fatigue and weakness. Explain why patients with a mitochondrial disease would tend to experience these systems.
15. Data from two different cells are shown in the graphs below.
Which cell is most likely a plant cell? Support your answer.
key
A) breaks down several other types of food in the stomach
B) is involved in other reactions when the temperature and pH are idea
C) helps in the synthesis of complex sugars during autotrophic nutrition
D) is not involved in other types of reactions because enzymes are specific
1. In humans, lactose is broken down into glucose and galactose in the presence of a particular enzyme. It is most likely that the enzyme that breaks down lactose
A) cellulose molecules are too big to be absorbed into cells B) humans have enzymes to break down starch, but not cellulose C) humans have only starch-digesting ribosomes in their digestive system D) humans convert excess cellulose to glucose
2. Cellulose is the chemical name for the fiber found in fruits and vegetables. Cellulose is similar in structure to starch. It is most likely that humans can digest starch but not cellulose because
A) enzymes that function within the circulatory system
B) red blood cells' ability to fight infections C) white blood cells' ability to carry oxygen to the
body D) DNA that controls starch digestion in the
circulatory system
3. The body's inability to regulate blood pH could affect
A) the enzyme is digested in those locations B) no protein molecules are located in the small intestine or the mouth C) the enzyme changes to fit different molecules in different locations D) the stomach may have a more suitable environment for the enzyme to work
4. An enzyme that rapidly breaks down a protein molecule in the stomach may break down that same protein much more slowly in the small intestine or mouth because
A) 1 and 5 B) 2 and 4 C) 3 and 2 D) 4 and 3
5. Some structural formulas of organic molecules are shown below.
Which structural formulas represent carbohydrate molecules?
A) converted into starch by dehydration synthesis and stored in roots
B) converted into cellulose by hydrolysis and stored in leaves
C) used as catalysts for metabolic activity D) used as a raw material for photosynthesis
6. How are glucose molecules produced by green plants usually processed?
7. Base your answer to the following question on the two chemical reactions shown below.
A) glycerol molecule B) monosaccharide C) dipeptide molecule D) polymer
Letter B represents a
A) A protein is a long chain of amino acids folded into a specific shape.
B) A protein is a long chain of simple sugars folded into a specific shape.
C) A protein is made of amino acids synthesized into a short, circular chain.
D) A protein is made of simple sugars synthesized into a short, circular chain.
8. Mad cow disease is a fatal disease that destroys brain tissue. Researchers have found that a prion protein, which is an abnormally constructed molecule, is responsible. Which statement best describes the characteristics a protein must have to function correctly?
A) nucleus and ribosomes B) cell membrane and nucleus C) chloroplasts and cell membrane D) mitochondria and chloroplasts
9. The structures most directly involved in the synthesis of cellular proteins are the
A) amount of energy available for synthesis of the protein
B) kind and sequence of amino acids in the protein
C) type and number of DNA molecules in a cell D) mistakes made when the DNA is copied
10. The shape of a protein is most directly determined by the
A) the digestion of the amino acids that make up the proteins
B) the synthesis of a protein with different simple sugars
C) removal of the gene that codes for the production of the protein
D) an internal factor in the body, such as a temperature increase
11. In the diagram below, X represents a process that causes a protein to unfold and stop functioning.
Process X is most likely caused by
12. State one reason why a human heart muscle cell would probably contain a higher proportion of mitochondria than a skin cell.
13. Base your answer to the following question on the diagram below and on your knowledge of biology. The diagram represents a human enzyme.
Draw a molecule that would most likely be able to interact with this enzyme.
14. Today, many diseases have been linked to mutations that cause mitochondria to fail. Patients who suffer from mitochondrial diseases may suffer from fatigue and weakness. Explain why patients with a mitochondrial disease would tend to experience these systems.
15. Data from two different cells are shown in the graphs below.
Which cell is most likely a plant cell? Support your answer.
Biomolecules and Enzymes
1. D 2. B 3. A 4. D 5. A 6. A 7. B 8. A 9. A 10. B 11. D 12. — Heart muscle
cells require more energy than skin cells. — Skin cells are not as active as muscle cells. — The heart muscle cells use more energy/ATP.
13.
14. — Mitochondria are the site of cellular respiration, a process that releases energy in the cell.
15. Example: - Cell 1, because it contains chloroplasts. - Cell 1, because it has a cell wall.
A) nervous B) digestive C) respiratory D) circulatory
1. In humans, two organ systems work together to move oxygen throughout the body and deliver it to cells. Which system directly delivers oxygen to body cells?
A) photosynthesis B) respiration C) digestion D) replication
2. Which biological process is represented in the diagram below?
A) It occurs in animal cells but not in plant cells. B) It converts energy in food into a more usable
form. C) It uses carbon dioxide and produces oxygen. D) It stores energy in food molecules.
3. Which statement best describes cellular respiration?
A) ATP B) DNA C) starch D) glucose
4. Substance X directly supplies energy for various life functions, as shown in the diagram below.
Which substance is represented by X in the diagram?
A) converted into amino acids needed for the production of starch
B) released as heat energy back into the hummingbird's environment
C) changed into radiant energy, which can be used by plants for photosynthesis
D) used to synthesize inorganic compounds necessary for cellular respiration
5. A hummingbird may need to consume up to 50% of its body weight in sugar each day, just to meet its energy needs. Some of this energy is stored and some is used for metabolic activities, but much of the energy is
A) maintaining homeostasis by responding to environmental change
B) controlling carbon dioxide release during daylight hours
C) decreasing evaporation for cooling during evening hours
D) failing to respond to environmental conditions
6. Scientists examined 39 tree species from warm and cold areas of Earth, and found that the trees were able to regulate their leaf temperatures, keeping them about 21°C. This meant that the leaves were able to be cooler than their environment in warm areas, but warmer than the environment in cool areas. This is an example of
A) organelles B) estrogen C) guard cells D) antibodies
7. Homeostasis in single-celled organisms is maintained through the proper functioning of
A) organic molecules, only B) inorganic molecules, only C) both organic and inorganic molecules D) neither organic nor inorganic molecules
8. Which molecules are normally found in single-celled organisms?
A) amount of energy they release B) type of proteins they synthesize C) rate of their metabolism D) information stored in their DNA
9. The cells in the diagram below were present in the same individual.
These cells are most similar in the
A) vacuoles B) nuclei C) mitochondria D) ribosomes
10. ATP is produced in the
A) 1 B) 2 C) 3 D) 4
11. The chart below includes structures found in a multicellular organism. Which row contains the structures that would be most numerous?
Base your answers to questions 12 and 13 on the diagram below and on your knowledge of biology. The diagram represents a series of events that occur within living organisms.
A) respiration B) circulation C) excretion D) digestion
12. The process that occurs at Step 1 is
A) ribosome B) vacuole C) cell membrane D) mitochondrion
13. Cell structure X is a
A) cell membrane B) nucleus C) vacuole D) chloroplast
14. The respiratory system of an elephant functions in a similar way to which organelle in a single celled organism?
A) cell: the basic structural, functional, and biological unit B) organ: a group of tissues with a common function C) tissue: a group of cells with a similar structure and function D) organ system: a collection of organs with a common function
15. Which choice below best completes the diagram with a correct label and definition for the box labeled X?
16. Base your answer to the following question on the information below and on your knowledge of biology.
Mitochondria
Mitochondria are organelles present in most complex cells. The diagram below illustrates a typical mitochondrion in cells.
Different cells in the human body contain different numbers of mitochondria. The chart below shows the approximate number of mitochondria present in various cells.
State which cell type would probably be most affected by mitochondrial diseases. Support your answer.
17. Base your answer to the following question on Which process is indicated by the equation below?
A) hydrolysis B) osmosis C) decomposition D) dehydration synthesis
18. Base your answer to the following question on the diagram below which represents steps in the enzyme-catalyzed breakdown of maltose and on your knowledge of biology.
A) fermentation B) carbon fixation C) hydrolysis D) dehydration synthesis
Which chemical reaction occurs between steps 1 and 5?
A) enzymes B) simple sugars C) amino acids D) inorganic compounds
19. Starch molecules present in a maple tree are made from materials that originally entered the tree from the external environment. What form are these materials in before entering the tree?
A) chloroplast B) mitochondrion C) vacuole D) nucleus
20. Creatine, a popular nutritional supplement, is used to decrease fatigue by increasing ATP in muscle cells. The cell structure directly responsible for the increased production of ATP in human muscle cells is the
topic
Liver cells maybe most affected since they contain the most mitochondria.
What are Chargaff’s rules?
Identify the structure of the DNA molecule
What are nucleotides? What makes up a nucleotide?
What is complementary base pairing?
Explain why complementary base pairing is necessary to maintain the double helix shape of the DNA molecule?
Why is DNA replication said to be semi-conservative?
Characteristics of Life
What are the three main characteristics of life? (Refer to the class notes or resources online) ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Complete the chart, outlining the various Life Processes. (Refer to the notes or resources online.)
How are living things organized? Put the following terms in order of how life is organized: cells, organism, organs, organelles, tissues, organ system
Which term includes all the activities required to keep an organism alive?
Growth
Excretion
Metabolism
Nutrition
Cells
Identify two major differences between prokaryotic cells and Eukaryotic cells.
Identify two major differences between Plant and animal Cells .
What type of cell is shown below? ______________________
Label each cell part and briefly describe what its function is in the cell.
Experimental Design
What is the purpose of including a control group in an experiment? ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
In an experiment, the ________________ variable is the variable that the scientist(s) changes on purpose.
In an experiment, the ________________ variable is the variable that is measured as the outcome.
The one variable that is purposely changed during an experiment is the independent variable. All other factors must be held constant. Explain why. ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
What can be done to increase the validity of an experiment? (See suggestions on the class notes sheet.)__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
An experiment that was designed to test the hypothesis that; copper surfaces can reduce bacteria levels in hospitals. In this example experiment, what was the…?
independent variable_________________________________________________________
dependent variable__________________________________________________________
Cellular Respiration
1) The process in which energy is released from food and stored in ATP molecules is called____________ _______________________ .
2) Write the equation for cellular respiration using both words and chemical formulas below. Include the reactants (a.k.a raw materials) and the products.
→
→
3) Where does cellular respiration take place in a cell? __________________________________________
4) Identify 2 ways that anaerobic cellular respiration differs from aerobic cellular respiration.
____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Human Body Systems
Explain why pulse rate increases during exercise
The nervous and endocrine system both work to regulate the body through feedback mechanisms. Explain how the insulin and glucagon feedback mechanism works to maintain homeostasis
What is the difference between an antigen and antibody?
____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Explain what a vaccine is and how it works to protect our body against future invasions
What are allergies?
Explain why you will be immune to the chicken pox virus after having the chicken pox, , but you will not be immune to the swine flu virus after having the chicken pox.
Name_______________________________________________________Date____________________
Midterm Review #2 (Biochemistry, Enzymes Cell Membrane and Transport)
A folder with some related materials that were used in class has been uploaded to Google Classroom. When completing these questions, use these electronic resources as well as the notes/handouts in your binder for reference.
Biochemistry
1) What is the difference between an organic and an inorganic compound? __________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
2) Explain and/or diagram the difference between synthesis and digestion.
__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
3) Complete the chart.
*Be sure to review the entire Biomolecules Chart. You should know the monomers and functions of each type of organic compound.
Enzymes
1) What type of organic compound are enzymes? ______________________________________________
2) What do enzymes do in living things? _____________________________________________________________________________________
3) Why is the shape of an enzyme so important? __________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
4) You can usually recognize an enzyme because the name ends in what 3 letters? ___________________
5) Define the word denature. ______________________________________________________________
6) What factors can affect the rate of enzyme activity? Explain. __________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Structure of the Cell Membrane
The cell membrane is composed of a bilayer of _______________________molecules.
Many different types of proteins are embedded in the plasma membrane. The function of receptor (protein) molecules is to____________________________________________________________.
The bilayer is selectively permeable, which means _______________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________________.
Biochemistry and Enzymes Practice Questions
1. Which substances are inorganic compounds?
water and salts
proteins and carbohydrates
fats and oils
enzymes and hormones
2. Compound X increases the rate of the reaction below.
Compound X is most likely
an enzyme
a lipid molecule
an indicator
an ADP molecule
3. Which term includes all the activities required to keep an organism alive?
growth
excretion
metabolism
nutrition
4. An iodine test of a tomato plant leaf revealed that starch was present at 5:00 p.m. on a sunny afternoon in July. When a similar leaf from the same tomato plant was tested with iodine at 6:00 a.m. the next morning, the test indicated that less starch was present in this leaf than in the leaf tested the day before. This reduction in starch content occurred because starch was
changed into cellulose
transported out of the leaves through the stomates
conducted downward toward the roots through vessels
digested into simple sugars
6. Which elements are present in all organic compounds?
hydrogen and oxygen
nitrogen and oxygen
nitrogen and carbon
hydrogen and carbon
7. The effect of temperature on the relative rate of action of an enzyme is represented in the graph.
The optimum temperature for the action of this enzyme is approximately
15°C
22°C
37°C
50°C
8. Which statement best describes the enzyme represented in the graphs below?
This enzyme works best at a temperature of 35°C and a pH of 8.
This enzyme works best at a temperature of 50°C and a pH of 12.
Temperature and pH have no effect on the action of this enzyme.
This enzyme works best at a temperature above 50°C and a pH above 12
9. What occurs during the digestion of protein?
Specific enzymes break down proteins into amino acids.
Specific hormones break down proteins into simple sugars.
Specific hormones break down proteins into complex starches.
Specific enzymes break down proteins into simple sugars
Midterm Exam Info Packet 2026
Unit 1.1- Study of Biology
Characteristics of Life/Life Processes
Nutrition- taking in and breaking down food
Reproduction- creating new offspring
Synthesis- building larger molecules from smaller molecules
Excretion - releasing cellular waste
Transport- absorption and circulation of materials
Respiration- releasing energy from glucose molecules
Regulation- control and coordination of the organism
Metabolism- all the chemical reactions that occur in an organism
Organisms must carry out all of the life processes in order to be considered living things
The only life process that is not required for an individual to survive- reproduction
Cell Types of Cells- Eukaryotic vs. Prokaryotic
Cell organelles- structures inside cells
Cell Membrane- controls what enters and exits the cell
Cytoplasm- liquid holding organelles together, transports substances throughout the cell
Vacuole- storage of food and water
Nucleus- contains genetic information
Ribosome- synthesizes (makes) proteins
Mitochondria- site of cellular respiration
Chloroplast- site of photosynthesis
Cell Wall- supports the cell and provides rigid shape and some protection
Nucleolus- builds ribosomes
Types of Eukaryotic Cells-Plant Cell vs. Animal Cells
Levels of organization of multicellular organisms
Organelles→ Cells→ Tissues→ Organs→ Organ System→ Organism
Unicellular organisms use organelles to help carry out life processes whereas multicellular organisms use
organs to help them carry out the life functions
Unit 1.2- Nutrition and Biochemistry
Inorganic vs. organic
Organic molecules- contain BOTH carbon and hydrogen
examples: glucose (C6H12O6), protein, amino acids, carbs, lipids, nucleic acids (DNA/RNA)
Inorganic molecules- DO NOT contain both carbon and hydrogen
Examples: water (H2O), carbon dioxide (CO2), salt (NaCl)
Dehydration Synthesis vs. hydrolysis reactions
Dehydration synthesis- (building) small molecules combine to make large molecules
Hydrolysis-(digestion) break apart large molecules into smaller molecules
Monomers are small organic molecules that make up polymers (large organic molecules.
Three major organic molecules a.k.a. biomolecules a.k.a. macromolecules (Carbs, Proteins, Lipids)
Unit 1.3- Inquiry and Design
Steps of the scientific method
Determine a problem (question)
Do research on the topic
Form a hypothesis (a prediction of the outcome - not a question)
Example: an increase in fertilizer will cause the plant to grow taller
Design an experiment
Collect and analyze the data
Draw a conclusion
Designing a controlled experiment
Independent vs. dependent variables
Independent variable- variable that is being tested (Amount of fertilizer)
Dependent variable- what is being measured (Example: Plant height)
Difference between Control and experimental group
Control group- group that does not receive the independent variable (think “normal” or “no” IV group)
Example: Plants that do not receive fertilizer
Experimental group- group that receives the independent variable
Example: Plants that receive different amounts of fertilizer
All other conditions must be kept constant in order to know if the changes were truly a result of the independent variable.
Examples: Amount of light, amount of water, amount of sunlight. If we are testing the effect of fertilizer on plant height, the only thing that we should be changing with the plants is the amount of fertilizer
Obtaining valid results
To make the results of an experiment MORE VALID always
Repeat the experiment
Increase sample size
Unit 1.4- Enzymes
Enzymes;
are a category of proteins.
are biological catalysts, meaning they speed up chemical reactions without being used up.
perform chemical reactions, such as digestion (break apart) or synthesis (combine).
fit their substrate like a lock-and-key. In other words, they have a specific shape to perform a specific function.
function the best at a certain temperature or pH called the optimum.
Substrate or Reactant - what the enzyme binds with at the start of a reaction
Active site - the location on the enzyme where the substrate binds
Enzyme-substrate complex - the name for the combination of the enzyme and the substrate
Product - what is created from the chemical reaction
Temperature: Enzymes will denature (lose their shape and no longer function) if the temperature is past the optimum.
pH: Enzymes will denature (lose their shape and no longer function) if the pH is above or below the optimum.
Unit 2.1-Cellular Respiration and Body Systems
Cell Respiration
Location in a cell: mitochondria (organelle)
Equation:
ALL organisms carry out cellular respiration
Aerobic vs. anaerobic respiration
Aerobic respiration - regular cell respiration that creates 36-38 ATP
Anaerobic respiration - occurs if there is no oxygen present and only creates 2 ATP
Alcohol Fermentation in Yeast: C6H12O6 → CO2+ alcohol + 2ATP
Lactic Acid Fermentation in Animals: C6H12O6 → lactic acid + 2ATP
Causes muscle fatigue during exercise
In order for the reactants of cell respiration to enter the cell and for the products to leave, molecules must move across the cell membrane
Cell membrane- controls what enters and exits
Is selectively permeable, meaning small and nonpolar molecules can enter and exit while large and charged or polar molecules cannot
Parts of the cell membrane
Phosphate head (hydrophilic-likes water) -D
Lipid tail (hydrophobic-afraid of water)- C
Receptor protein - A
Transport protein -B
Types of proteins and function of each
Receptor Proteins: receive messages from outside the cell
Transport Proteins: helps substances move through cell membrane
Surface Proteins: acts as a maker to identify each cell like a nametag
Body Systems
Circulatory
Includes the heart, blood vessels (veins, arteries, and capillaries,) and blood
Main function: transport oxygen and nutrients to cells and waste away from cells
Digestive
Includes the mouth, stomach and small intestines (and villi in the small intestine)
Main function: break down food into molecules small enough to diffuse(absorption) into and be used by cells
In the mouth, chewing crushes food and enzymes break down starch into simple sugars
In the stomach, enzymes and stomach acid break down protein into amino acids
In the small intestines, enzymes finish breaking down all food
Food molecules pass through the villi and are absorbed into the blood via the capillaries
Next, the circulatory system will transport the glucose to the body cells to be used for cellular respiration
Respiratory
Includes the lungs (and the alveoli)
Main function: gas exchange
In the lungs, the alveoli are surrounded by capillaries
The oxygen diffuses into the blood (lungs to capillaries)
Next, the circulatory system will transport the oxygen to the body cells to be used for cellular respiration
The circulatory system will also transport the carbon dioxide waste from cellular respiration to the lungs
The carbon dioxide diffuses out of the blood (capillaries to lungs)
Excretory
Includes the skin, lungs, and urinary system (kidneys and bladder)
Main function: excretion (removal of waste)
In the kidneys, blood is filtered and waste is transported to the bladder to be removed
During exercise, the your heart beats faster increasing pulse rate (circulatory system)
This allows your body to transport oxygen and glucose to your cells faster. Your cells need oxygen and glucose faster during exercise for cellular respiration which makes ATP.
During exercise, your breathing rate and depth of breathing increase too (respiratory system)
This allows your body to take in more oxygen and remove carbon dioxide faster.
Nervous System vs. Endocrine System
Both work to regulate or control body systems
Send messages
Nervous System- Made up of Nerves. Sends messages along nerve cells
Endocrine System- system of glands. Sends messages (hormones) through the bloodstream
*Remember both neurotransmitters and hormones are proteins and have a specific shape. they would need to fit properly with the receptor protein on the cell membrane to transmit their signal
Both Nervous and Endocrine System work through Feedback Mechanisms
Examples of Negative Feedback Mechanisms
Blood sugar regulation
Regulating Body Temperature
Regulating water levels in the blood
Unit 2.2 Immune System
Protects the body from disease or foreign invaders (pathogen)
Immune Response
Antigen causes or stimulates the immune response
White blood cells produce antibodies (proteins) specific to that antigen
Memory Cells are produced to protect from future invasion
Vaccine- contain dead or weakened version of virus- stimulates antibody production
Active Immunity vs. Passive Immunity
Unit 3.1- Cell Division
DNA is stored genetic information. It is located in the nucleus of cells. It can be organized into genes and chromosomes
DNA monomers= nucleotides
DNA is a double helix. The genetic information is contained in the order of the nitrogenous bases
Cell Cycle
Interphase:
G1-cell grows
S-DNA Replicates
G2- cell prepares for division
Cell Division:
Mitosis ( Division of nucleus)
Cytokinesis (Splitting of cytoplasm)
S-phase- DNA Replicates (copies itself) by untwisting, unzipping and then adding in complementary (A-T, G-C) nucleotides to the exposed bases. Result is 2 identical copies of DNA