Chapter 2 part 2

  1. Why is carbon important to life? → It can form many strong, stable bonds and complex molecules.

  2. How many valence electrons does carbon have? → 4.

  3. How many covalent bonds can carbon form? → Up to 4.

  4. What are organic compounds? → Carbon-based compounds.

  5. What is a functional group? → A specific group of atoms that gives a molecule certain properties.

  6. Alcohol functional group? → -OH

  7. Carboxyl functional group? → -COOH

  8. Amino functional group? → -NH₂

  9. Phosphate functional group? → -PO₄

  10. Sulfhydryl functional group? → -SH

  11. Methyl functional group? → -CH₃

Polymers

  1. What is a polymer? → Large molecule made of repeating smaller units.

  2. What is a monomer? → A single building block of a polymer.

  3. How are polymers made? → Dehydration synthesis; removes H₂O.

  4. How are polymers broken down? → Hydrolysis; adds H₂O.

🍞 Carbohydrates

  1. What are carbohydrates? → Sugars used for energy and structure.

  2. What are carbohydrate monomers? → Monosaccharides/simple sugars.

  3. Carbohydrate ratio? → 1 C : 2 H : 1 O

  4. Main functions of carbohydrates? → Immediate energy, energy storage, and structure.

  5. Monosaccharide? → 1 sugar unit.

  6. Disaccharide? → 2 sugar units.

  7. Oligosaccharide? → 3–10 sugar units.

  8. Polysaccharide? → 11+ sugar units.

  9. What is starch? → Plant carbohydrate used for energy storage.

  10. Can humans digest starch? → Yes, using amylase.

  11. What is cellulose? → Plant structural carbohydrate/fiber.

  12. Can humans digest cellulose? → No; humans don't make cellulase.

  13. What is glycogen? → Animal glucose storage polymer.

  14. Where is glycogen stored? → Mainly muscles and liver.

  15. What is glycogenolysis? → Breakdown of glycogen to release glucose.

🥩 Proteins

  1. What are proteins made of? → Amino acids.

  2. How many common amino acids are used? → 20.

  3. What connects amino acids? → Peptide bonds.

  4. What are the 5 parts of an amino acid? → Central carbon, H, amino group, carboxyl group, and R group.

  5. What is the R group? → Variable part that makes each amino acid different.

  6. What determines protein function? → Its 3D shape.

  7. What determines protein shape? → Amino acid sequence and R-group interactions.

  8. What is a polypeptide? → Long chain of amino acids.

  9. What is primary protein structure? → Amino acid sequence.

  10. What is secondary structure? → Alpha helices and beta sheets formed by H-bonds.

  11. What is tertiary structure? → Overall 3D shape of one polypeptide.

  12. What is quaternary structure? → Multiple folded polypeptides together.

  13. What is denaturation? → Loss of a protein's normal 3D shape and function.

  14. What can cause denaturation? → Heat, extreme pH, and high salt.

  15. Does denaturation destroy the primary structure? → No, according to the lecture.

🧬 Nucleic Acids

  1. What are nucleic acids? → DNA and RNA.

  2. What are nucleic acids made of? → Nucleotides.

  3. What does DNA do? → Stores genetic instructions.

  4. What does RNA do? → Helps make proteins.

  5. DNA structure? → Double-stranded.

  6. RNA structure? → Single-stranded.

  7. What does mRNA do? → Carries protein-making instructions to ribosomes.

  8. DNA base-pairing rules? → A pairs with T; G pairs with C.

  9. How many H-bonds between A and T? → 2.

  10. How many H-bonds between G and C? → 3.

🥑 Lipids

  1. What are lipids? → Mostly nonpolar carbon-based molecules.

  2. Are lipids polymers? → No.

  3. Main lipid types? → Fatty acids, triglycerides, phospholipids, steroids, and waxes.

  4. Functions of lipids? → Energy storage, insulation, cell membranes, and hormones.

  5. What is a saturated fatty acid? → Has only single C-C bonds.

  6. What is an unsaturated fatty acid? → Has one or more C=C double bonds.

  7. Monounsaturated? → 1 double bond.

  8. Polyunsaturated? → More than 1 double bond.

  9. What do double bonds do to fatty acid chains? → Create kinks.

  10. What is a triglyceride made of? → Glycerol + 3 fatty acids.

  11. Where is stored fat mainly found in mammals? → Adipose tissue.

  12. What is a phospholipid made of? → Polar phosphate head + 2 nonpolar fatty acid tails.

  13. What is a phospholipid bilayer? → Two layers of phospholipids forming a cell membrane.

  14. Which part of a phospholipid is hydrophilic? → Polar head.

  15. Which part is hydrophobic? → Nonpolar tails.

  16. Why do phospholipids form a bilayer in water? → Heads interact with water while tails avoid water.