Epistemic Development and the Perils of Pluto
Author's Acknowledgments
David Moshman expresses gratitude to the following individuals for feedback on the draft of this chapter:
Daniel Abbott
Deanna Kuhn
Rick Lombardo
Annick Mansfield
Yolanda Rolle
Martin Rowley
Les Smith
Introduction to Epistemic Development
Date of Publication: April 2007
Context: To appear in M. Shaughnessy, M. Vennemann, & C. K. Kennedy (Eds.), Metacognition. Hauppauge, NY: Nova.
Author's Address: Department of Educational Psychology, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, NE 68588-0345, USA (email: dmoshman1@unl.edu).
Changes in Planetary Status
By the beginning of 2006, the Earth was the third planet from the sun among nine known planets.
By the end of 2006, it was classified as the third of eight planets, with Pluto no longer considered a planet.
Possible scenarios for Pluto's absence:
Pluto was destroyed by a starship from another galaxy or timeframe.
It could have been an accident or geological catastrophe.
Actual cause of change: Pluto was redefined after extensive debate among astronomers, eliminating it from the planetary classification.
Pluto remains in its orbit while humans debate its classification.
Philosophy of Knowledge and Truth
The event raises questions about the nature of knowledge and truth:
Is the world purely a function of human perceptions?
Are there absolute truths, or is all knowledge subject to change?
How do people navigate limits of knowledge and uncertainty?
Epistemic cognition:
Defined as knowledge about knowledge.
Epistemic development: Progress in epistemic cognition.
Research indicates children from the age of 4 are aware of knowledge and can progress in their understanding over the years.
Main points:
Epistemic cognition: Knowledge about knowledge.
Epistemic development: Progress in epistemic cognition.
Theoretical Approaches and Literature Review
Theoretical account of epistemic development draws from various literatures:
Epistemic cognition in adolescents and adults (Perry, 1970; Chandler, 1987; etc.).
Young children’s theories of mind, including understanding false belief (Wellman, Cross, & Watson, 2001).
Development of interpretive and constructivist theories of mind during elementary years (Carpendale & Chandler, 1996, etc.).
Development of metalogical understanding (Miller, Custer, & Nassau, 2000; Moshman, 1990, 2004, forthcoming).
Domain specificity in cognition (Komatsu & Galotti, 1986; Nicholls & Thorkildsen, 1988).
Stages of Epistemic Development
Child Development:
Begins around age 4 when children understand beliefs can be false.
Distinction between three epistemic domains develops:
Objective domain of truth
Subjective domain of taste
Rational domain of reasonable interpretation
Adolescent and Adult Development:
Development becomes less universal and predictable post-age 11.
Participants construct advanced forms of epistemic cognition, progressing through three epistemic stages:
Objectivist epistemologies: Knowledge based on verifiable facts and proofs.
Subjectivist epistemologies: Knowledge is subjective opinion or taste.
Rationalist epistemologies: Knowledge as justified belief based on interpretation and inference.
The Perils of Pluto: Reflection and Inquiry
Key Questions Surrounding Pluto:
Is Pluto a planet?
How many planets are there?
Which planet is considered the best?
Which planets can support life?
20th Century Understanding:
There were nine planets, with Pluto being one.
Information was widely disseminated and considered factual.
Subjectivity in Choices:
Preference based questions (favorite planets) cannot yield consensus.
The question of supporting life involves varying interpretations rather than strict facts.
Categorizing Questions into Domains
Three domains of questioning:
Matters of truth: Objective, universally agreed upon facts.
Matters of taste: Subjective preferences with no right answer.
Matters of interpretation: Evidence and arguments can lead to varying conclusions, progress may be made in understanding differing opinions.
Reassessing Pluto's Status
Now confirmed that Pluto is no longer considered a planet, and the total count is eight.
Reflect on how knowledge changes; questioning the same facts can yield contradictory answers over time, emphasizing the fluid nature of knowledge.
Distinction in Epistemic Cognition:
Distinguishes between knowledge about the status of specific beliefs and general epistemological claims.
Children show substantial development in epistemic understanding, while broader epistemological theories develop in adolescence to adulthood.
Epistemic Development in Childhood
Origins of Epistemic Cognition:
Recognition of the possibility of false beliefs leading to differentiation of truth versus falsity.
Comprehension of false beliefs improves drastically between ages 3 and 5 (Wellman et al., 2001).
Children by ages 4-5 recognize that beliefs may not reflect reality, affecting actions based on those beliefs.
Developmental research identifies three epistemology-relevant domains progressively distinguished from ages 6-10:
Domain of Truth: Objectivity prevails, facts can be proven true or false (e.g., number of planets).
Domain of Taste: Subjective preferences that are not true or false (e.g., favorite flavors).
Domain of Interpretation: Justification may exist for different interpretations without objective truths involved.
Detailed Development within the Domains
Domain of Truth:
Children learn to distinguish factual assertions, logical deductions, and moral truths.
By age 6, children acknowledge logical sequences like class hierarchies and basic mathematical truths (Miller et al., 2000).
Moral truths recognized early by children, with distinctions made between situational rules and universal standards (Wainryb et al., 2004).
Domain of Taste:
Children see subjectivity in preferences by at least age 5 (Carpendale & Chandler, 1996).
Disagreements about taste classified as legitimate responses.
Domain of Interpretation:
As children age, distinctions between interpretation and taste solidify, alongside grounding interpretations on evidence (Carpendale & Chandler, 1996).
By ages 7-8 children begin to articulate the necessity of evidence for differing interpretations.
Epistemic Development in Adolescence and Beyond
Exploration of Pluto's classification changes the way children view knowledge; denotes a shift in how they perceive errors in belief systems.
Young adolescents may appreciate the objectivity in scientific claims but might encounter new forms of cognitive dissonance concerning definitions of knowledge.
Reflection on Definitions:
New scientific definitions of planets reveal problems with absolutes in knowledge.
The subjective nature of definitions can lead young learners to question general principles of knowledge and truth.
The Epistemology of History
History traditionally viewed as a domain of truth, understood within factual correctness, differing from fiction which is a matter of taste.
Objective definitions in history can be nuanced, and one's understanding of events can vary based on perspectives.
Defining Genocide:
Classification of genocides is fraught with complexities, as definitions differ and shape historical understanding.
Understanding historical events requires acknowledgment of subjectivity and the importance of definitions.
Philosophical Implications and Conclusion
Epistemic development addresses our understanding through various lenses—truth, taste, interpretation.
Epistemic development does not reach an ultimate level; further exploration in knowledge and its origins is necessary.
Final Thought:
The Earth was recognized as a planet only once its conceptualization was complete; knowledge itself is an evolving construct that cannot always align with reality.
References
Provides extensive citations to studies and literature relevant to developmental psychology and epistemic cognition, including works by well-known scholars such as Jean Piaget and Barbara W. King.
Comprehensive reference list includes all cited sources, underscoring the multi-faceted nature of knowledge and epistemological understanding.