Comprehensive Notes on Classical and Hellenistic Greek Art

Classical Greek Art and the Mastery of Myron

Classical Greek art is defined by a shift toward more naturalistic and dynamic representations of the human form, moving away from rigidity and toward a logic of movement. One of the most significant figures from this period is Myron, an artist from Eleutherae. His most prestigious work is the Discobolus, or Diskobolos, a name derived from the Greek terms $diskos$ (meaning disk or disc) and $ballein$ (meaning to throw). Although the original bronze sculpture is lost, various Roman marble copies survive to demonstrate the artist's genius. The Discobolus represents a young nude athlete captured in the precise moment before throwing a discus. The sculpture's position is masterful because it suggests the entire dynamic sequence of the action; the viewer is able to intuit what has already happened and what is about to occur next.

Despite the intense physical exertion implied by the athlete's pose, the face of the Discobolus remains remarkably calm, reflecting the influence of the Severe Style. Structurally, the composition is highly calculated to convey rhythmic tension. The right arm, which is raised and thrown back, works in conjunction with the left arm and the set-back left leg to form an arc. Conversely, the right arm, the back, the thigh, and the left leg produce a sort of moved circle (referred to in the notes as an $anello mossa$). Force appears to accumulate in the body and then concentrate in the hand that grips the disk. This creates a composition that balances tension and fluidity.

Polykleitos of Argos and the Development of the Canon

Polykleitos of Argos was another major figure of the Classical period, known for revolutionizing the mathematical approach to art. He formulated a standard for human proportions known as the Canon. By measuring a large number of men, Polykleitos derived average or "ideal" measurements that represented the perfect human form. He documented these findings in a formal treatise, although only three fragments regarding the harmony of different body parts survive today. The core principle of his Canon was that every single element of the body must be proportional to one another to achieve true beauty.

His most famous work, the Doryphoros (Spear-Bearer), exemplifies these principles and marks the point where rigidity and frontality were definitively abandoned. This was achieved through the technique of "ponderazione" (ponderation), which is the harmonious distribution of weight. In the Doryphoros, a young athlete is captured in mid-motion. The right leg is the supporting or load-bearing leg ($portante$), while the left leg is flexed and pushed back. This causes the pelvis to lift on the side of the supporting leg, while the torso is slightly inclined. The right arm slides down the side while the opposite arm (the left) is bent and holds a spear ($lancia$). This arrangement forms a chiasmus, which is a contrasting X-shaped pattern inspired by the Greek letter chi ($\chi$).

Phidias and the Acropolis of Athens

Phidias is considered the greatest representative of Classical art. He was chosen by Pericles to oversee the decoration of the Parthenon, the grand temple dedicated to the goddess Athena. Phidias specialized in creating massive chryselephantine statues, a term used for works constructed from gold ($oro$) and ivory ($avorio$). Notable examples of his work include the colossal statue of Athena within the Parthenon and a similar statue of Zeus at Olympia. The use of these materials was not merely for aesthetic grandeur but also carried significant religious and civic value.

The Parthenon itself is a peripteral, octastyle temple with a plan featuring $8$ naves. It was designed by modifying an existing peripteral Doric temple and rests on a convex stylobate ($stilobate convesso$). The temple's interior decoration (specifically the pronaos and opisthodomos) features an Ionic frieze. The term "Parthenon" originally referred to the "room of the virgins," which was accessible from the opisthodomos. This was the location where the peplos—the embroidered woven garment offered to the goddess Athena—was kept. The exterior was adorned with $92$ metopes representing various mythological battles: the East side depicted the Gigantomachy, the South side the Centauromachy, and the West side the Amazonomachy. The architectural design utilized a superimposition of columns, with the lower ones being taller and the upper ones shorter.

Strategic Buildings and Sacred Spaces of the Athenian Acropolis

The Acropolis of Athens served as the religious and civic heart of the city, containing several monumental structures beyond the Parthenon. The Propylaea served as the monumental entrance to the Acropolis; it is architecturally unique for featuring two distinct orders, the Doric and the Ionic, integrated into one entrance system. Located near the Propylaea is the Temple of Athena Nike, an Ionic, amphiprostyle, tetrastyle temple (meaning it has four columns on both the front and the back). This temple features a continuous Ionic frieze.

Another vital structure is the Erechtheion, a sacred area of the Acropolis known for its unique architectural features, most notably the Caryatids. These are columns sculpted in the form of female figures that support the entablature. For civic and cultural performance, the Acropolis complex included the Odeon of Pericles, a building dedicated initially to singing competitions but which soon began to host city assemblies. Additionally, the Theater of Dionysus was integrated into the side of the hill ($cavea$), representing a deep correspondence between nature and theater. In this space, singers and actors performed around an altar dedicated to Dionysus.

The Riace Bronzes and Bronze Casting Techniques

The Riace Bronzes (I Bronzi di Riace) are representative of the mastery of bronze sculpture in the $480\,\text{B.C.}$ period. Bronze A depicts a young nude warrior with long, messy hair and a beard. Scientific analysis reveals that the shells of the eyes were cast separately and inserted into the already shaped head. The warrior originally wore a "regia" helmet and carried a shield, though both are currently lost. His right leg is bearing weight, while the left leg is slightly flexed and pushed forward relative to the right. His head is turned toward the right, and his silver ($argento$) teeth are visible between his lips.

Bronze B, also dated to approximately $480\,\text{B.C.}$, similarly depicts a young nude warrior. Like Bronze A, his left leg is advanced compared to the right, and his hip and shoulders are slightly lowered. His hair is styled with strands of red copper ($rame rosso$), and his eyes are made of stone and ivory ($pietra e avorio$). These statues were likely part of a larger monument, though the specific characters they represent remain undefined in current archaeological study.

Evolution into Late Classical Art: Lysippos, Praxiteles, and Skopas

Toward the end of the Classical period, three primary artists—Praxiteles, Skopas, and Lysippos—introduced new emotional and spatial qualities to Greek sculpture. Lysippos, in particular, was known for his work Apoxyomenos, representing a young athlete cleaning himself with a strigil ($strigile$) after a competition. Originally made in bronze, this work marks a departure from Polykleitos's Canon. In the Apoxyomenos, there is no chiasmus ($non abbiamo un chiasmo$); instead, Lysippos introduced a new relationship between the parts of the body. The left leg is slightly advanced compared to the right, and the right arm is extended forward while the athlete holds the strigil with his left hand. This pose assigns the action to a specific goal of the body ("assegna l'azione a una meta del corpo"), creating a sense of tension and relaxation through antithetical limbs.

Praxiteles is best known for the Aphrodite of Cnidus ($364/363\,\text{B.C.}$), named because it was purchased by the inhabitants of Cnidus for a temple where it could be viewed from all sides. It represents a nude female figure (Aphrodite) leaning a cloth over a hydria (water jar) or picking it up after a bath. The sinuous body displays all the attributes of femininity and involves the viewer in a moment of vulnerability. Her head is slightly inclined to the side, and she covers her pubic area, appearing surprised as if by a stranger. This late classical style uses a soft, "S" shaped sinuous posture (often called the Praxitelean curve). Meanwhile, Skopas is associated with the introduction of pathos, focusing on the expression of intense human emotions such as anguish and suffering.

Hellenistic Sculpture and the Laocoön Group

The Hellenistic period further intensified the emotional and physical drama found in Late Classical art. One of the most famous examples is the Laocoön group, a Roman copy of a monumental sculpture discovered in Rome in $1506\,\text{A.D.}$ The sculpture is attributed to the artists Agesandros, Athenodoros, and Polydoros. It depicts one of the most emotional moments of the Trojan War: the death of Laocoön. According to myth, Laocoön tried to save his city, Troy ($Troia$), by warning his fellow citizens about the deception of the wooden horse. However, the goddess Athena sent serpents from the sea to crush and kill Laocoön and his sons ($figli$). The sculpture is a masterpiece of tension, relaxation, and pathos, showing the figures struggling against the constricting serpents.

Two other iconic works of this era are the Nike of Samothrace and the Venus de Milo. The Nike of Samothrace, attributed to Pythokritos of Rhodes, was created to celebrate the naval victories of the Rhodian fleet. The wind is shown modeling the woman's body and her drapery, creating a sense of intense physical interaction with the environment. The Venus de Milo, discovered on the island of Milos in $1820\,\text{A.D.}$ and later donated to the Louvre for King Louis XVIII, depicts Aphrodite. It retains the sinuous Praxitelean "S"-shaped posture and features rich drapery with a "wet" effect ($effetto bagnato$). This work, like other Hellenistic pieces, masterfully balances the contrast between tension and relaxation through a twisting movement of the body.