AP Government UNIT 2 REVIEW [Everything You Need to Know!]

AP Government Unit 2 Study Guide (Refined)

Congress: The Senate and the House of Representatives (2.1)

  • Congress’ Structure: Bicameral (two houses)

    • Senate: Each state represented equally with 2 senators.

      • Qualifications: Must be 30+, U.S. citizen for 9+ years, and resident of the state represented.

      • Term: Serves 6 years; has less public pressure and more responsibility; focuses on broad issues impacting the nation.

    • House of Representatives: Representation based on population, with 435 representatives total.

      • Qualifications: Must be 25+, a citizen for 7+ years, and a resident of the state represented.

      • Term: Serves 2-year terms; more focused on local issues and experiences greater public pressure.

How Laws Are Made

  • A law is typically sponsored by a member of the Senate.

  • It is then considered and debated in both chambers.

  • Assigned to a committee for detailed review and adjustments.

  • Sent to the floor of either house for voting.

  • If passed, it is sent to the president for signing into law.

House Debates

  • Senate rules are strict and structured; House rules are generally more relaxed, allowing for a different level of debate freedom.

Congressional Powers

  • Responsibilities of Congress include passing a federal budget, raising revenue, coining money, declaring war, and maintaining armed forces, which includes implied powers based on the Necessary and Proper Clause.

Structures, Powers, and Functions of Congress (2.2)

House Leadership:

  • Speaker of the House: Elected leader responsible for committee assignments and following parliamentary procedure.

  • Majority/Minority Leaders: Help guide policy-making and direct debates within their party.

  • Whips: Assist in ensuring party discipline and aligning members with party goals.

Senate Leadership:

  • Vice President: Serves as a non-voting member, voting only to break ties.

  • President Pro Tempore: Elected from the majority party; leads when the Vice President is absent.

  • Majority/Minority Leaders: Set legislative agendas and control bill calendars.

Committees:

  • Types of Committees:

    • Standing Committees: Permanent committees that deal with ongoing issues (e.g., Appropriations Committee).

    • Joint Committees: Composed of members from both the Senate and House.

    • Select Committees: Temporary committees tasked with specific purposes.

    • Conference Committees: Work out differences in legislation between both houses.

    • House Rules Committee: Acts as a gatekeeper, determining when votes happen and how bills are assigned to committees.

Legislative Procedures:

  • Filibuster: A tactic to delay or kill a bill using prolonged debate.

  • Cloture: A procedure to end a filibuster and bring a vote.

  • Unanimous Consent: A method used to expedite legislative processes.

  • Riders: Additional provisions added to a bill for political advantage.

  • Pork-Barrel Spending: Refers to the appropriation of government funds for localized projects secured solely to bring money to a representative's district.

  • Logrolling: An agreement among legislators to support each other’s bill proposals.

Congressional Behavior (2.3)

  • Ideological Divisions:

    • Liberals vs. Conservatives: Representing opposing ideological stances on government and society.

  • Gridlock: The inability to pass legislation due to conflicting interests and ideologies, leading to a standstill.

  • Divided Government: Occurs when different political parties control different branches of government, leading to slower legislative processes compared to a unified government.

  • Delegate Model: Legislators prioritize the opinions of their constituents in voting.

  • Trustee Model: Legislators make decisions based on their judgment, even against constituents' preferences.

  • Politico Model: A hybrid approach incorporating aspects of both delegate and trustee models, adapting to public sentiment.

  • Redistricting: The process of redrawing congressional districts every 10 years based on population data.

  • Baker v. Carr (1962): Landmark Supreme Court case establishing the principle of one person, one vote, ensuring equal representation in redistricting.

  • Gerrymandering: The intentional redrawing of district boundaries to gain political advantage.

  • Shaw v. Reno (1993): Supreme Court ruling declaring racial gerrymandering unconstitutional.

Roles and Powers of the President (2.4)

  • Policy Agenda: The set of policies a president aims to implement during their presidency.

  • Presidential Powers:

    • Formal Powers: Include the authority to veto legislation, use a pocket veto, and serve as Commander in Chief.

    • Informal Powers: Involve bargaining, persuasion, and issuing executive orders.

  • Executive Order: A directive issued by the president that has the impact of law.

  • Signing Statement: The president’s interpretation or comments on legislation at the time of signing.

  • Executive Agreement: Informal agreements with foreign leaders that do not require Senate approval.

Checks on the Presidency (2.5)

  • Advice and Consent: Senate approval is necessary for presidential appointments (e.g., cabinet members, ambassadors).

Expansion of Federal Power (2.6)

  • Federalist 70: Written by Hamilton, arguing for a single executive to maintain effective governance and prevent power from expanding unchecked.

  • Examination of historical changes in the interpretation of executive powers.

Presidential Communication (2.7)

  • The president holds significant influence over public opinion through communication methods.

  • Bully Pulpit: The president's ability to persuade the public and influence policy.

  • State of the Union: The president’s annual address to Congress to outline legislative priorities.

The Judicial Branch (2.8)

  • Court Structure: Comprises the Supreme Court, Court of Appeals, and District Courts.

  • Judges are appointed for life by the president, subject to Senate confirmation.

  • Jurisdiction:

    • Original Jurisdiction: Cases that are heard for the first time in District Courts.

    • Appellate Jurisdiction: Review of cases appealed from lower courts.

    • Judicial Review: The authority to declare laws unconstitutional, established in Marbury v. Madison.

Legitimacy of the Judicial Branch (2.9)

  • Precedent: Prior judicial decisions that influence future case rulings.

  • Loose vs. Strict Constructionism: Debates on constitutional interpretation methods.

The Supreme Court in Action & How it can be checked (2.10-2.11)

  • Judicial Activism vs. Judicial Restraint:

    • Activism: Courts establish policy through their rulings (e.g., Brown v. Board, Citizens United v. FEC).

    • Restraint: Courts avoid making policy, only striking down laws that breach constitutional frameworks.

  • Checks on the Judicial Branch:

    • Legislation can be passed to adjust court impacts or amend the Constitution, affecting judicial power.

The Federal Bureaucracy (2.12)

  • Bureaucracy Structure:

    • Cabinet Departments: 15 departments led by cabinet members.

    • Independent Regulatory Commissions: Agencies that regulate sectors of society.

    • Government Corporations: Hybrid entities that provide governmental services through market-oriented methods.

  • Functions of Bureaucracies:

    • Writing and enforcing regulations, along with compliance/delivery of services.

    • Iron Triangle: The interconnected relationship between congressional committees, bureaucrats, and interest groups affecting policy making.

    • Issue Networks: Collaborative alliances for influencing policies among various stakeholders.

      Bureaucracy Structure:

      • Cabinet Departments: 15 departments led by cabinet members, including:

        • Department of Homeland Security: Established to coordinate national efforts in addressing threats such as terrorism and natural disasters.

        • Department of Transportation: Oversees the nation’s transportation systems, including highways, railroads, and airports, ensuring safe and efficient transit options.

        • Department of Veterans Affairs: Provides essential services to veterans, including healthcare and financial assistance.

        • Department of Education: Focuses on promoting student achievement and preparation for global competitiveness by fostering educational excellence.

        • Environmental Protection Agency (EPA): Responsible for protecting human health and the environment by enforcing regulations based on laws passed by Congress.

        • Federal Elections Commission (FEC): Administers and enforces federal campaign finance laws, ensuring transparency in political contributions and expenditures.

        • Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC): Regulates the securities industry, protects investors, and maintains fair, orderly, and efficient markets.

Bureaucracy: Discretionary & Rule Making Authority (2.13)

  • Rule-Making Authority: Agencies that can formulate specific rules that govern program implementation.

Holding the Bureaucracy Accountable (2.14-2.15)

  • Oversight:

    • Committee Hearings: Congressional review and scrutiny of agency operations.

    • Power of the Purse: Congress’s control over agency funding, influencing bureaucratic performance.

    • Judicial Review: Courts interpret agency-created rules for their constitutionality.