Human Relationships – Interpersonal Relationships
Examine biological, psychological and social origins of attraction.
Discuss the role of communication in maintaining relationships.
Explain the role that culture plays in the formation and maintenance of relationships.
Analyse why relationships may change or end.
Biological Factors of Attraction:
The "Biochemical Love Cocktail"
Fisher et al. Study
Aim To investigate neuropsychologic correlates of early-stage romantic love |
Method True Experiment, with method triangulation. Interviews, Questionnaires, and fMRI. |
Sample Self-selected sample of 10F and 7M, who were intensely in love on average 7.4 months. |
Procedure Semi-constructed interviews: - Helped to establish the duration and intensity of the participants feelings of love. Passionate Love Scale: - Standardized scale questionnaire, measured traits commonly associated with romantic love. fMRI scans: - 30sec looking at picture of their beloved, performed a filler task looking at neutral photograph, repeated six times. |
Findings Generated pictures of the brain in love, showing activity in the reward system. Found that the brains reward system is active when lovers look at pictures of beloved, meaning an increase in dopamine neurons. fMRI showed a correlation between love and brain activity. |
Conclusion Fisher claims that love is not a feeling, but a motivation system created to motivate humans to mate. The role of dopamine could explain increased energy, focused attention, obsessive following, sleeplessness, and loss of appetite. |
Evaluation Correlational study - Dopamine system was activated during this experiment, correlated with emotional response, displays a strong relationship with the emotions and behaviours. Artificial environment -> does not display real-life scenarios, and can give different results in real life settings. |
The Role of Hormones
Vasopressin
Released during sex and may play a role in long-term commitment
Winslow et al. (1993) found that suppressing vasopressin in male prairie voles reduced their devotion to mates
Walum et al. (2008) found a correlation between a vasopressin receptor gene variant and lower marital satisfaction in human males
Oxytocin
Released during touching, sex, and childbirth
May intensify feelings of attachment and suppress amygdala activity, reducing anxiety and aggression
Ditzen et al. (2009) found that oxytocin improved communication and lowered stress hormone levels in couples discussing contentious issues
Evolutionary Explanation
Evolutionary psychology uses natural selection to explain attraction patterns
Physical attractiveness is more valued in areas with higher pathogen stress (Gangestad and Buss, 1993)
Symmetrical facial features and good health indicators are seen as attractive
The Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC) may influence attraction to improve offspring's immune systems
Wedekind (1995) supported the idea that diverse MHC genes are beneficial for offspring
Wedekind
Androstadiene [AND] a steroid that has been described as a putative pheromone in men. |
Co-dominant inheritance: A form of inheritance wherein the alleles of a gene pair in a heterozygote are fully expressed. As a result, the phenotype of the offspring is a combination of the phenotype of the parents. Thus, the trait is neither dominant nor recessive. |
Estratetraenol [EST]: a steroid that has been described as a putative pheromone in women. |
Major Histocompatibility Complex, a group of genes that code for proteins found on the surfaces of cells that help the immune system recognize foreign substances |
Pheromone: a chemical substance produced and released into the environment by an animal affecting the behaviour or physiology of others of its own species. |
Putative pheromone: this is the term used to communicate the idea that the example is "potentially" a human pheromone, but it is not definitive. |
Signalling pheromones: Chemical substances that produce rapid behavioural effects, such as mating |
Aim Examine the role of MHC on mate selection |
Method Quasi-experiment |
Sample 49F, 44M students from Switz University |
Procedure They were then all asked to wear a shirt that was 100% cotton. |
Findings Women preferred men with dissimilar immune systems or MHC - genes to their own. |
Conclusion The smell of the MHC - genes appeals to us because they are different to the ones that we have ourselves. It means that the offspring created will have a strong immune system, and thus a greater chance of survival. |
Evaluation Limitation: It was not very generalisable to a larger population size as only students were tested. Strenght/Value: The experiment was well controlled, so we can be sure that it was the persons natural odour that was judged and not anything other than this. |
Cognitive Theories of Attraction:
Theory 1: Dissimilarity Attraction model
Main argument: Individuals are more likely to be attracted to others who are similar to themselves (Birds of a feather) rather than different. (Opposites attract)
Why? Couples who have too many differences don’t have much to discuss and tend to disagree more.
Markey and Markey:
Aim Investigate the role of similarity in partner selection and marital satisfaction. |
Method Questionnaires -> Correlational |
Sample 1. Undergraduate students 2. 106 heterosexual young couples. |
Procedure 1. Questionnaires describing their psychological characteristics of their ideal partners, and a description of themselves. 2. Couples completed a questionnaire about their own and their partners traits, along with the frequency of arguments etc. |
Findings/Conclusion 1. Participants description of their ideal partner was similar to how they described themselves. 2. Couples description confirmed that individuals tend to have harmonious relationships with similar characteristics, though not all traits were similar. Similarity attraction model is supported in this study, and influences partner selection and satisfaction in romantic relationships. |
Implications Limitations: - Self-reported data has potential for bias and may fall to demand characteristics. - Does not establish causation between similarity and relationship outcome. |
Theory 2: Schema and Attachment Theory
Key Argument: John Bowlby positioned that people form schemas based on their first bond with someone, and this determines their attachment style. This is known as internal working model. In our elementary years we learn about the safety of the world, and we create schemas based on these years.
- Anxious- Ambivalent: Has difficulties trusting a partner, often answering that parents were avoidant in early development.
- Anxious-Avoidant: Will likely be emotionally distant, creating a weak emotional bond with partner, and parents were also generally avoidant.
- Secure: Attentive and responsive partner
Key Study: Hazan and Shaver
Aim Investigate the connection between adult romantic styles and early attachment patterns. Theorizing that romantic love is influenced by early attachment experiences with caregivers. |
Sample 620 self-selected participants, age 14-82, including both genders. |
Method Questionnaire |
Procedure - Love Quiz, where participants selected one of three statements (A, B, or C) representing different adult attachment styles—avoidant, secure, or anxious-ambivalent. Participants also described their parents’ parenting styles using an adjective checklist. |
Findings/Conclusion Participants with secure attachment styles typically described their parents as available and responsive. Those with anxious-avoidant styles reported parents as unresponsive or rejecting, while those with anxious-ambivalent styles described their parents as inconsistently responsive and anxious. |
Implications Limitations: - Self-selected, with female dominating sample, introduces potential sampling bias. - Western culture might not be generalizable due to lack of cross-cultural research. Strengths: - Large sample size, which provides reliability to the results. - Clear categorization of attachment styles, and good relation. |
Theory 3: The Halo Effect
Key argument: Suggests that we tend to predict attractive individuals to be happier, more successful, and overall have more positive traits. Utilizes System 1 thinking, meaning it makes quick assumptions rather than analysed arguments.
System 1: automatic and intuitive
System 2: slower and more conscious
Key study: Dion et al
Aim Investigate the influence of the halo effect on partner selection. |
Sample 60 university students, 30F and 30M |
Method True Experiment |
Procedure Each participant received three randomly assigned photos of individuals of similar age but varying levels of attractiveness (attractive, moderately attractive, and unattractive). Participants were then asked to rate 27 personality traits using a 6-point scale. - Traits such as, marital happiness, success, and parental happiness. |
Findings/Conclusion Participants consistently rated attractive individuals as more likely to be happy, successful, and posses more positive traits than less attractive individuals. Attractive individuals are perceived more favourably, which could influence partner selection and perceptions of life success. |
Implications Strengths: - Sample was large, and had a mix of both genders, which increases the reliability of the findings. Limitations: - Possibility for sample bias, as it consisted only of American students, which limits the generalizability. |
Sociocultural theories of attraction:
Key argument: Culture also shapes what we look for in a partner, and how we go about finding someone to date (and eventually marry).
Mere exposure effect: A psychological phenomenon by which people tend to develop a preference for things simply because they are familiar with them. Proposed by Zajonc.
Key studies:
Zajonc (1968)
Aim Investigate whether exposure to a certain person was origin to attraction. |
Method True Experiment |
Sample Michigan State University students -> female |
Procedure 3. Deceived to believe they were taking part in a study about visual memory. 4. Shown a set of male faces, each for 2 seconds 5. Pictures were shown at different frequency levels. 6. Asked to rate the likability of the male on a 1-7 scale. |
Findings Images which were shown more frequently received a higher rating, than those only shown once. Study illustrates how mere exposure effect will increase our sense of likability to them. |
Evaluation - Ethical considerations: Usage of deception - Artificial environment -> low ecological validity - WEIRD - Construct validity -> investigated likability rather than romantic love. |
Buss (1989)
Aim Investigate gender and cultural differences in mate preferences. |
Method Correlational study, Surveys, Cross cultural |
Sample 10,000 participants from 37 cultures |
Procedure Surveys, on partner and spouse preferences, ratings and rankings of 18 different mate characteristics. (physical attraction, intelligence, education, etc) Rated characteristics 0-1, then asked to rank them from 1-13 in order of which were most desirable. |
Findings Females rated good financial prospects and ambition significantly higher than males did. This was found in only 29/37, so it was not universal. |
Conclusion Certain similarities/differences between the sexes were tethered to evolutionary mechanism and reproductive traits. Buss’ study supports the evolutionary hypothesis for mate preferences and sex differences, rather then sociocultural factors. |
Evaluation Strenght: - Large sample size 10,000, ensures reliability in the findings. - Cross-cultural study, not ethno-centric and accounted for cultural influences. Limitations: - Questionnaires are at risk of demand characteristics and confirmation bias. - Inconsistencies in sampling, sample was mainly from urban areas, and rural, lower education populations were not represented. |
Gupta and Singh (1982)
Aim Investigate the role of passionate love in “love marriages” and arrange marriages. |
Method Interviews |
Sample Conducted interviews with 50 Indian couples married out of love or arranged. - Initial time - After 5 years - After 10 years |
Procedure - “Love marriages” had more passionate love initially, but the researchers saw a decrease over time. - Whilst the arranged couples grew more passionate love over the course of the marriage. |
Findings Arranged marriages appear to have more passionate love in the long run, while love marriages tend to decrease |
Evaluation Strenght: - High cultural relativism as the researcher was Indian, which limits cultural bias. - Standardized love scale -> replicable Limitation: - Sample was purely Indian participants, which can be problematic in generalization. - Love scale was used to determine the extent of love. This is a highly artificial as love is subjective emotion. |
Moreland and Beach (Zajonc in naturalistic setting)
Aim The aim of this study is to test the validity of the mere-exposure effect. |
Method Field experiment |
Sample 130 undergraduate psychology students (63 male; 67 female); all of the participants were taking a personality psychology course in a large lecture hall. |
Procedure 4 female confederates posed as students appearead at the lecture at differenct frequencies. Woman A, appeared 0 times, Woman B attented 5 session, Woman C attended 10, and Woman D 15 sessions. Later the participants were shown slides of the same 4 women and were asked to rank them on a 1-7 scale for multiple traits, such as attractivness, intelligence, and popularity. |
Findings It was found that even though none of the students found the women familiar, the more lectures the woman attended, the more positive traits she was attributed. |
Conclusion The results support the mere-exposure effect and show it can be observed in naturalistic conditions. |
Evaluation High ecological validity, the situation was very natural |
Discuss the role of communication in maintaining relationships
Gottman’s Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse:
Four communication styles that Gottman found affceted the relationship negatively, led him to belive he would be able to predict (90% accuracy) the end of the relationship.
Contempt: Criticising the partner's personality and character, rather than the behaviour Defensiveness: Denying responsibility, making excuses or returning their partner's complaint with their own.
Criticism: Criticising the partner's personality and character, rather than the behaviour. Stonewalling: Removing oneself from the conversation, by refusing to speak, removing eye contact, monosyllabic responses or changing the subject.
Gottman’s study:
Aim To create and test models of causes of relationship dissolution as well as investigate what makes marriages last. |
Method Longitudinal non-participating overt observation |
Sample 20 couples, following 20 years |
Procedure - Couples were interviewed about their frequency of fights, types of conflicts etc. - Couples were observed in "love labs" before and after discussing common conflict areas in the relationship. - Facial expressions, physiological responses (pulse, sweating), tone of voice, what was said was recorded. - The time spent in positive and negative interaction was measured. |
Findings The ratio of positive interactions to negative interactions must be 5:1 (eg for every insult, 5 compliments must be given) The marriage was likely to be stable if this ration was maintained Ways of communicating including the 4 horsemen often predicted relationship breakdown |
Evaluation Strenght: - Longitudnal study, able to observe the trajectory of the relationship. - Triangulation (interviews, observations): higher internal validity. Limitation: - Low ecological validity: interviews and discussions were done wearing heart rate monitors and sweat rate monitors, in addition to the PPS being watched |
Attribution Theory:
Proposed by Bradbury and Fincham, implies that the way couples attribute positive and negative events has an effect in marriage satisfaction. Spouse may be seen as responsible for all negative events, and not attributed any of the positive ones. In case negative events are attributed to the spouse and in case the spouse is seen as responsible for negative events, marriage satisfaction decreases and the relationship may be short-lived.
Aim To investigate whether attributions are related to relationship satisfaction and expressions of anger |
Method Questionare + Observation |
Sample 47 couples-> recruited through advertisment in media. |
Procedure attributions: participants were to indicate actual negative partner behaviors that had occurred during the last week. they were then asked to make causal and responsibility attributions of the first two of these (spouse observation checklist) marital satisfaction: the marital adjustment test was used to measure marital satisfaction anger: the inventory of marital problems was used to identify a topic that both spouses agreed that they had difficulties with. they were then asked to discuss this issue to work out a resolution in 15 minutes. the discussion was videotaped and coded for anger and whining. |
Findings - Scores on attribution of hypothetical situations correlated with actual attributions. - Attribution correlated negatively with marital satisfaction. attribution correlated with the amount of anger and whining - |
Conclusion Dispositional attributions for negative behavior are linked to negative behavior toward the spouse. negative attributions affect marital satisfaction. |
Evaluation Strenght: - Using multiple measurements to measure the variables (limits the impact of confounding or extraneous variables) Limitations: - Social desirability might have affected their responses to the sitatuation, limiting the ecological validity because it did not reflect a natural setting. - Only investigated only heterosexual couples. à findings may not be generalizable to non-heterosexual couples. |
Social Penetration Theory:
Key argument: Argues that close relationships are formed by a process of gradual self-disclosure - that is, sharing personal things about yourself with someone that you trust. The researchers argue that self-disclosure leads to self-validation.
- They argue that disclosure is part of the cost-benefit analysis that takes place in any relationship. As I disclose information about myself, if I feel validated, I feel the relationship has value. If I disclose and feel that my potential partner is critical or disinterested, I see a cost to disclosure and back away from the relationship.
4 stages disclosure à by Altman and Taylor
The Orientation Stage is often referred to as "small talk." It involves sharing Simple information about oneself without revealing anything that would reveal vulnerability. For example, I am American. I live in Prague. I am a student. There is a low risk at this level of communication.
The Exploratory Stage: One starts to reveal more about one's feelings and opinions—but still on rather "safe" topics. These may include thoughts on the current government, what we like and don't like about our jobs, and thoughts on the future. This is the stage at which many friendships stay.
The Affective Stage: Beginning to share information of a private/personal nature. Often, this stage also involves intimate physical relations.
The Stable Stage: One feels that they can be honest and open with a partner. Trust is strongly developed. One can predict the other person's emotional reactions.
Can self-disclosure be related to attraction? Collins & Miller (1994) conducted a meta-analysis of self-disclosure studies and found that people who disclose intimate information about themselves are more liked than people who don’t.
Collins and Milner
Aim Investigate the link between self-disclosure and the development and maintenance of relationships. |
Method Meta analysis (50 studies) correlations, experiement (lab/field) |
Procedure Argue different levels of disclosure: |
Findings 1) people like those who disclose to them |
Evaluation Strenghts: - Empirical evidence for social penetration theory - Distinguished between 3 different disclosure-liking relations and were investigated separately Limitations: - Gender bias, only 15 studies used both male and female and only 11 tested gender differences |
4.Discuss why relationships end
Social Exchange Theory
- Based on the idea that relationships are based on an exchanges. In relationships we are weighing the potential benefits and costs of social relationships. The theory states that when the costs outweigh the rewards, people will terminate their relationship.
Equity Theory
Follows social exchange theory, however, since costs and benefits of relationships are subjective, it follows “perceived” equity/equality in the relationship which determines if it will be maintained or terminated. The benefits are the positive parts of the relationship, such as closure, companionship, and connection. Whilst costs are the negative sides, such as loss of privacy, arguments, unalignment in goals. Perceived equity builds upon social exchange theory, which assumes that relationships will last as long as the benefits outweigh the costs.
Key study: Hatfield et al (1979)
Aim Investigate the validity of equity theory in relation to infidelity. |
Method Correlational study (questionnaire) |
Sample 2000 responses to a magazine, couples married or living together. |
Procedure - Asked to describe their partners traits. - The nature of the relationship, which would establish if they felt under-benefited. - Questions about extramarital affairs, how many and how long they lasted. |
Findings/Conclusion Research found that those who felt greatly under-benefited from their relationship had extramarital sex sooner than those who felt equally benefited. Thos who felt over-benefited or under-benefited were more likely to doubt the future of their relationship. The study suggests that in order for a relationship to last long term there needs to be a equity between the two parties. |
Implications Strengths: - Large sample size, which makes it more representable of the population, however, as all of them were US, it cannot be fully generalized. Limitations: - Self-reported data, which was also retrospective, which has a high risk of memory distortion. - Bidirectional ambiguity does the imbalance lead to extramarital affairs or vice versa. |
Fatal Attraction Theory
- Proposed by Felmlee in 1995, in which she argues that what attracts us to our partner in the first place may be the reason why the relation ultimately ends. Felmlee explores three traits which can be attributed to fatal attraction, fun to foolish, strong to domineering, and spontaneous to unpredictable.
Aim Explore the concept of fatal attraction theory. |
Method Open interviews |
Sample 301 university students, both male and female |
Procedure Retrospective approach to their most recent relationship, asked which qualities initially attracted them to their partner and which qualities led to their breakup. |
Findings/Conclusion The study found that in 88 of the cases, the initial attractive qualities were the underlying reason behind the breakup. |
Implications Strenght: - Large sample size Limitations: - Not representative sample, as it consisted of university students, college relationships have a higher turnover rate, so the results cannot be applied to populations like married couples. - Retrospective and subject to memory distortion. |
Role of Communication
The argument that the communication styles of the relationship are significant in its ending was first proposed by Gottman, his theory about the Four Horsemen examines how these negative communication styles will predict the end of the relationship. The four communication styles Gottman proposed were, Contempt, Criticism, Defensiveness, and Stonewalling.
- Gottman describes contempt as feeling morally superior to your partner, this is expressed in communication through micro-expressions.
- Criticism was attacking your partners core personality instead of addressing the issue itself.
- Defensiveness was often an response to criticism, it included playing the victim and pushing away all accountabilities.
- Lastly, Stonewalling was a withdrawal from the conversation with your partner, in a sense blocking them out, this was often a response to being overwhelmed by the conversation.
Key study: Gottman
Aim Determine the causes of relationship dissolution as well as investigate what makes marriages last. |
Method Observations and interviews, longitudinal over 20 years. |
Sample 200 couples |
Procedure - Questions about frequency of fights, and the types of conflicts. - “Love Lab” observations, before and after discussing common conflict areas in the relationship. - Physiological responses such as pulse, sweating, tone, and micro expressions were recorded. - The time spent in positive and negative interactions was measured. |
Findings Gottman found three styles of healthy problem solving in marriages. - Validating - Volatile - Conflict avoiding The ratio of positive to negative interactions must be 5:1, if the marriage wants to be stable. Ways of communicating included the four horsemen, and often predicted the breakdown. |
Implications Strengths: - Research triangulation, interviews and observations. - Large sample, and longitudinal study which allowed him to observe the trajectory of the relationship. Limitations: - Low ecological validity due to artificial conditions such as heart rate monitors and sweat rate monitors. - Biased sample, as the couples who were observed were already coming to Gottman for counselling. |