Chapter 17
Chapter 17: Nations and Empires (1850-1914)
How Nation States Became Global Empires
Main Themes:
Nation-state building and imperial expansion significantly altered the global map.
Industrialization, scientific advancements, and technological progress enabled states in North America, Western Europe, and Japan to assert dominance politically, militarily, and economically over various regions.
European, American, and Japanese imperialists faced considerable resistance when expanding into Asia and Africa.
Summary
After 1850, the formation of nation-states in Europe, the Americas, and Oceania, along with the expansion of their empires, fundamentally transformed the world map, leading to widespread exhilaration for some and frustration for others.
Europeans and people of European descent reaped the most benefits during this period.
The nation-states of Europe, locked in fierce political and economic competition, exerted their influence worldwide.
This competition intensified due to the disruptions in the European balance of power resulting from the unification of Italy and Germany.
Expansion of the United States and its Contradictions
Across the Atlantic, the US shifted from its anti-colonial roots to annexing overseas territories.
However, this imperial expansion faced significant opposition from communities in Asia and Africa being integrated into new empires.
The latter half of the 19th century saw the intertwined evolution of nationalism and imperialism alongside the further acceleration of industrialization.
These developments together enabled Western Europe and the US to gain a dominant position in global affairs, although this new world order was inherently unstable.
Consolidating Nations & Constructing Empires
During the latter part of the 19th century, the global IDEA of nation-state construction became prevalent, becoming closely associated with imperialism.
Building Nationalism:
Major nation-states emerged: Italy and Germany.
Expanding Empires:
The nation-building process frequently led to the acquisition of foreign territories, a phenomenon termed imperialism.
Rulers defined national strength based on criteria such as unity, national power, and military conquest.
Consequently, countries like France, Germany, the US, Russia, and Japan emulated Britain's imperial pursuits.
Consolidation of Nation-States in Europe
The French Revolutionary concept of “the nation” characterized as a collective of people with a common culture significantly influenced the 19th-century political landscape.
A pivotal question arose: Who constituted "the people"?
With no room for expansion within Europe, new nation-states emerged from previous empires and monarchies.
There were minimal democratic frameworks; only France developed a parliamentary democracy with universal male suffrage.
Defining "The Nation"
Cultural transformations initiated by societal elites laid essential groundwork for conceptualizing the “nation.”
Important Developments:
Print Culture and Public Education: Mastered literacy, fostered public opinion, and aided in the standardization of language.
Infrastructure Projects: Integrated geographical areas leading to national unification.
Industrial Economy: Encouraged the establishment of uniform laws and policies.
A lingering dilemma persisted: Who belonged to the “people”?
Possible identifiers included shared language, religion, or territory.
Nations faced challenges in addressing diverse identities.
Unification in Germany and Italy
Map Reference: 1871 highlights Germany and Italy’s formation via Prussia and Piedmont-Sardinia’s incorporation of their smaller, linguistically akin neighbors.
Language and elevated cultural aspects (music, literature, theatre) served as justifications for nationhood.
However, these new nations largely rejected democratic governance.
Nation Building & Ethnic Conflict in the Austro-Hungarian Empire
In 1867, the Habsburg Holy Roman Empire began to disintegrate, evolving into the Austria-Hungarian Empire.
Other groups within the Empire, like Czechs, Poles, and Slavs, voiced demands for independence.
The Holy Roman Empire
The Holy Roman Empire was formally disbanded in 1806.
Subsequent to its dissolution, the Austrian Empire (later known as Austria-Hungary) emerged, as did the German Confederation.
By 1871, the German Confederation evolved into the new unified state of Germany.
Domestic Discontents in France and Britain
Even after unification, both France and Britain confronted domestic challenges.
France:
Instability resulted from the 1871 Franco-Prussian War, which completed German unification at France’s expense.
France lost the provinces of Alsace and Lorraine and suffered significantly during a prolonged German siege, leading to a humiliating peace treaty.
Domestic strife resulted in over 25,000 fatalities.
Britain:
The Kingdom of Great Britain faced complex issues with its diverse populace, including the English, Welsh, Scots, and Irish.
There was a gradual widening of voting rights, with all English men obtaining suffrage by 1918 and women by 1928.
The rising tide of Irish nationalism emerged as a concern due to 300 years of oppressive English rule and the devastating Irish Potato Famine (1845-49), which resulted in approximately one million deaths and forced about one million to emigrate.
This led to a significant movement advocating for Irish home rule.
Industry, Science, and Technology
The combination of industry, science, and technology played a crucial role in shaping the emerging nation-states in the West around 1850, marking the Second Industrial Revolution.
Japan joined this global trend, which redefined the global economy and influenced interactions among nations.
New Technologies:
Advancements in electricity, steel production, chemical industries, and pharmaceuticals were fundamental drivers of economic growth during the late 19th century.
Integration of the World Economy:
These innovations resulted in a more interconnected global economy, with economic power increasingly concentrated in North Atlantic states.
Mobility of Labor and Technology:
Significant labor migration occurred to meet the demands of industries, with many individuals moving between colonies and immigrating to various regions.
For instance, Chinese immigrants played an essential role in constructing railroads across the western United States.
Charles Darwin and Natural Selection
A pivotal shift in understanding nature stemmed from Charles Darwin's ideas presented in "On the Origin of Species" (1859).
Darwin's theory of evolution posited that organic life evolves under the continuous pressure of natural laws rather than through a singular creation as per biblical accounts.
Central to his theory is the principle of natural selection, where only the “fittest” organisms survive and reproduce.
Some individuals took Darwin's biological concepts and applied them to human societies, leading to Social Darwinism (SD).
Notably, Darwin himself did not endorse this application.
Social Darwinism was utilized to justify the dominance of certain states (predominantly Western nations) over others, and to legitimize the suffering of impoverished populations.
Imperialism and Culture
Europeans and Americans perceived themselves as superior, aspiring to “civilize” colonized populations.
Orientalism:
Artists and writers portrayed non-Western (especially Asian and Middle Eastern) peoples as exotic, sensual, and backward, reinforcing colonial narratives.
Social Darwinists upheld a racial hierarchy promoting the idea of Western superiority.
Propaganda flourished during this time, endorsing imperialism and advocating for population growth among Western nations to maintain control over colonial subjects.
Expansion & Nation Building in the Americas
In the Americas, nation-building involved territorial expansion, entailing significant loss of traditional lands for indigenous peoples.
Expansion led to numerous conflicts and considerable loss of life.
A prevailing belief in Manifest Destiny united Americans in their westward expansion, suggesting it was ordained by divine will for the United States to extend across North America.
Territory Acquired from the Mexican-American War (1846-48):
This conflict yielded California, transitioning the U.S. into a bi-coastal nation.
U.S. Civil War and Citizenship Rights
The U.S. Civil War was sparked by Abraham Lincoln's election in 1860, opposing slavery in new territories.
The Confederate States of America's (CSA) stance was encapsulated by Alexander Stephens’ Cornerstone Speech.
The Civil War was devastating, resulting in approximately 630,000 casualties.
The westward expansion posed an insurmountable question: Should new territories permit slavery or remain free states?
Outcomes of Union Victory:
The Civil War's conclusion was termed the Second American Revolution, resulting in the abolition of slavery.
Formerly enslaved individuals gained citizenship and voting rights.
However, there was significant resistance from counter-revolutionary groups, exemplified by the emergence of the KKK, lynchings, vigilantism, and new obstacles to voting rights, including literacy tests and poll taxes.
The federal government’s increased authority helped energize U.S. nationalism.
Economic and Industrial Development in the US
By approximately 1875, the industrial output in the United States had surged by 75%, positioning the U.S. as a leading economic power.
The influence of financiers expanded dramatically; by 1890, about 1% of Americans controlled approximately 90% of the nation’s wealth.
Major corporations like U.S. Steel and Standard Oil emerged, coinciding with the expansion of railroads and continued westward movement as promoted by the Homestead Act and immigrant labor.
By 1900, the United States had established itself as a global power.
The American Empire
The United States globalized the concept of Manifest Destiny and pursued overseas colonies, following the European imperial model:
Colonies existed to provide raw materials and consume finished products from the mother country.
Colonial subjects received no citizenship rights.
The U.S. opted for “territories” instead of traditional colonies, exemplified by Puerto Rico and the Philippines, which were acquired through the Spanish-American War (1898).
Elsewhere in the Americas
Canada:
Similar experiences to the U.S. in terms of westward expansion and economic success, though faced challenges with a weak national identity.
Latin America:
Nations in Latin America also expanded and undertook nation-building, but distinct from the U.S. and Canada, they had preexisting rural elites from the colonial structure.
These elites benefitted economically from territorial expansion via large agricultural estates at the expense of indigenous populations and people of color generally.
A discernible pattern emerged in Latin America, where strong states emerged to protect elite rights while denying rights to others (e.g., Brazil’s exclusive nation-state established in 1822).
Imperialism and the Origins of Anticolonial Nationalism
Increasing rivalries fueled an expansionist wave in the late 19th century, focusing on Africa and Asia.
Imperialists posited that colonialism benefited all involved, despite colonial inhabitants lacking rights or privileges as citizens.
These colonies primarily served the interests of the mother countries by supplying essential raw materials and consuming manufactured goods.
Key Products from Colonies:
Africa: cocoa, tea, coffee, diamonds, gold, copper.
Dutch East Indies: rubber, coffee, sugar.
India and Egypt: cotton.
Middle East: oil.
Colonized populations frequently resisted this oppressive system, with violent resistance being met with severe repression by imperial powers, subsequently leading to the rise of nationalist political movements in the colonies.
India and the British Imperial Model
Following the Rebellion of 1857, British governance in India established the Raj, which became a template for other imperial regimes.
Focused on developing the colony's infrastructure to optimize trade profits.
Colonial subjects were to be controlled but not appeased.
Emphasis on railroads was vital not only for transporting goods but also for deploying troops to suppress uprisings when necessary.
Other critical infrastructure included telegraphs, dams, and extensive plantations.
Ironically, the very systems of control also fostered a consciousness of unity among Indian subjects, leading them to identify as a national entity.
Dutch Colonial Rule in Indonesia
In the 1830s, the Dutch government consolidated control over the East Indies from the Dutch East India Company (VOC).
The focus on cash crops such as coffee, sugar, and tobacco minimized food production for local Indonesians, leading to famine during the 1840s and 1850s.
Colonizing Africa
Map Reference: The impact of European colonialism was profoundly felt throughout Africa.
Partitioning of Africa (1884-1885):
A coalition of Europeans, Ottomans, and the U.S. orchestrated the division of Africa, where the first arrivals in various regions laid claim to the land.
A fervent missionary drive aimed to spread Christianity accompanied this endeavor.
Notable figures in imperialism included King Leopold II of Belgium and Cecil Rhodes of Britain.
European territorial claims caused chaos for African societies:
About 70% of new borders disregarded traditional ethnic boundaries, splitting communities apart.
Territorial lines were drawn primarily for European convenience and trade interests.
Colonial Administrations in Africa
African peoples faced dire conditions with limited options—either submit or resist.
Most opted for resistance but were generally unsuccessful against superior Western weaponry.
Only King Menelik II of Ethiopia successfully defeated an invading force in the Battle of Adwa against Italy, utilizing both Western arms and trained soldiers.
Colonial governance structures mirrored those of India’s Raj, ironic as these models ultimately laid the groundwork for future nation-state frameworks.
The perception of racial superiority pervaded Western attitudes, including the delegation of authority to local African leaders, such as the Fulani and Tuareg, who regarded themselves as superior to other Africans.
Colonization severely disrupted traditional family structures and social organization and tended to be inherently weak since very few Westerners resided in Africa.
Pressures of Expansion: Japan, Russia, and China
Japan, Russia, and China exemplified three distinct models of non-Western expansion during this era.
Japan's Transformation & Expansion
In the 1860s, Japan emerged as a modern nation-state driven by events surrounding Commodore Matthew Perry's expeditions between 1853-1854.
Japan was compelled to agree to unfavorable treaties, allowing foreign intrusion and restrictions on tariffs, leading to a national awakening among the samurai class.
In 1868, reformist elements toppled the Tokugawa Shogunate, initiating an era known as the Meiji Restoration, aimed at restoring Japan's greatness through imperial expansion.
This period saw the development of a modern military, navy, and transportation systems.
A constitution inspired by Germany's was implemented, granting a limited franchise of 1% voting rights, while the power of daimyos was replaced by parliamentary governance.
Educational reforms established schools for women, promoted homogeneity among linguistic and ethnic groups, and instilled an ideology of superiority over others.
Economic transformations included the prohibition of the feudal system, enabling peasants to become landowners, and the adoption of a unified currency (the yen), along with civil service reforms.
Japan's expansionism began with the annexation of Okinawa in 1879 and the acquisition of Taiwan following victory in the Sino-Japanese War (1894-95).
Russian Transformation and Expansion
Russia's expansion was motivated by a “civilizing mission” and concerns regarding concurrent expansions by neighboring nations.
The expansionist policy was driven by fears of Germany, China, Japan, and British imperial power in the Middle East.
The invasion of Ottoman Moldovia (present-day Moldova) and Walachia (Romania) in 1853 ignited the Crimean War (1853-1856), wherein Russia faced defeat against Britain, France, and the Ottoman Empire.
The consequences of this defeat underscored Russia’s deficiencies in modern weaponry and transportation infrastructure, spurring a series of internal reforms.
As part of modernization, serfs were emancipated in 1861, a public educational system was initiated, and infrastructure such as railroads and factories was constructed, boosting various industries (steel, coal, petroleum).
Despite these changes, day-to-day conditions for ordinary Russians remained grim, leading to an assassination of Tsar Alexander II in 1881 and the rise of Marxism in the 1890s.
China under Pressure
The Qing dynasty prioritized combating internal uprisings more than addressing European encroachments.
Nevertheless, officials recognized the necessity to address Western technological dominance, leading to the “Self-Strengthening Movement.”
This initiative aimed to create arsenals, shipyards, coal mines, a steamship company, and institutions for teaching foreign languages and ideas.
A cohort of 120 Chinese students were dispatched to study abroad.
However, skepticism from conservative quarters eventually stalled the movement, which, combined with defeat by Japan in the Sino-Japanese War (1894-1895), revealed China's vulnerability to both external pressures and its own internal instabilities.
Conclusion
The years between 1850 and 1914 saw the formation of nation-states predicated on shared territories, laws, educational systems, military service, governance, culture, and historical narratives.
Many nation-states simultaneously underwent colonial endeavors as part of their nationalist ideologies, leading to intertwined processes of nation-building and territorial expansion—viewing these as pursuits of national glory and economic prosperity on a global level (as demonstrated by the experiences of Europe, the US, Japan, and Russia).
Entities in the West (including Japan and Russia) perceived themselves as superior to other peoples.
In contrast, populations within colonized regions began to recognize their identities as a collective and aspired towards independence, perceiving Western nations as hypocritical for contradicting Enlightenment principles of liberty and equality.