Notes on Working with Sources (2a–2b)

2a Identifying historical sources

• Primary sources: materials produced by people directly involved or present at the event; provide evidence historians use to describe and interpret the past
  • Examples: written documents (letters, diaries, newspapers, speeches, autobiographies, census data, vital records), nonwritten items (artworks, films, recordings, clothing, tools, archaeological remains)
  • Recent history: oral sources (interviews) can be primary
  • Access: can be originals in archives or printed/electronic copies; edited/translated collections are common; documents in edited volumes: editor notes are secondary, documents themselves are primary
• Secondary sources: texts written by people not eyewitnesses that synthesize, analyze, and interpret primary sources
  • Often scholarly but can be popular; best for scholarly papers to rely on scholarly sources
  • Useful for quick orientation and understanding of interpretations and debates
  • Bibliographies help locate primary sources and additional secondary sources
• Primary vs secondary status depends on the research question, not the age of the source
  • Example: Suetonius (Lives of the Twelve Caesars):
  • Secondary source if researching Julius Caesar’s reign (witness), but primary if researching second-century debates about imperial power
• Access formats do not change primary/secondary status
  • Sources exist in print, online, microfilm; accessibility does not change their type
• Uses of primary and secondary sources
  • Primary: enter lives/minds of people; direct contact with past through writings, artifacts, etc.
  • Secondary: provide broader context, multiple viewpoints, and awareness of scholarly debates
  • Use both in research to cover evidence and context

2a-2 Secondary sources

• Secondary sources synthesize and interpret primary sources
• Helpful for understanding what is already known and for spotting controversies
• Do not rely on secondary sources alone for academic papers (except in historiography)
• Tertiary sources (encyclopedias, dictionaries, textbooks) summarize secondary sources; not ideal as main scholarly sources
• Use bibliographies to locate primary/secondary sources

2a-3 Primary or secondary? The changing status

• Status depends on focus of the research question, not age
• Suetonius example (re edges of power):
  • If studying debates about imperial power, Suetonius is a primary source; if studying the Caesar era as eyewitness, it may be secondary
• Always ask: what is the question you are asking? how does the source function for that question?

2a-4 Accessing sources in history

• Formats include print books, web sites, microfilm
• Access method does not affect source status
• Examples: The Complete Work of Charles Darwin Online; JSTOR; electronic journals
• Online databases broaden access; distinguish between scholarly sources and general/low-credibility sites

2a-5 Uses of primary and secondary sources

• Primary sources provide firsthand evidence, direct access to thoughts, experiences, and material culture
• Secondary sources provide context, interpretation, and scholarly debate
• Effective historical work uses both, aligned with the research questions

2b Evaluating sources

• Primary sources: not inherently true; assess reliability and usefulness
• Secondary sources: also require critical reading and analysis; beware biased arguments; compare with other works
• Both types may contain biases, omissions, and conflicting information; historians compare multiple sources and viewpoints
• Editions and translations affect interpretation; read full text when possible; note editor's choices
• Nonwritten primary sources require the same core questions plus type-specific considerations
• Example: Napoleon letter to El-Messiri (1798) shows how to question reliability and context; a single source may offer limited truth but still provides valuable insight into political use of religion
• Evaluating primary sources: mix of techniques
  • Compare with other sources for corroboration
  • Identify biases and author’s perspective
  • Analyze language and tone for unspoken assumptions
  • Consider completeness and editorial decisions when using edited collections or translations

2b-1 Evaluating primary sources

• Treat as evidence but assess critically like detectives
• Techniques: corroboration, bias detection, linguistic analysis, internal consistency
• Editions/translations matter: editors select what to include; reading whole source preferred to excerpts
• Nonwritten primaries: apply same questions plus type-specific prompts
• Example framework: analyze purpose, audience, context, author/viewpoint, and corroborating sources

2b-2 Evaluating secondary sources

• Questions to judge quality:
  • Who is the author? credentials and affiliations
  • When was the text written? historical context
  • Publisher type: scholarly vs popular
  • Intended audience
  • What is the main thesis? Is it well-supported by primary sources?
  • Does the author consider counter-evidence and other viewpoints?
  • Are footnotes/bibliography comprehensive?
  • Are there unsubstantiated assumptions?
• Consider publication date: newer isn’t always better; look for enduring contributions
• Evaluate argument and evidence: logical, alternative interpretations, possible causal fallacies
• Distinguish popular vs scholarly sources; use scholarly works for academic writing
• Popular sources can be useful as primary sources (e.g., Time magazine for media analysis)

2b-3 Evaluating online sources

• The Internet provides access to primary and secondary sources, but credibility varies
• Useful online resources: Project Gutenberg (free ebooks), JSTOR, academic sites with.edu/.gov/.org domains
• Wikipedia is not a scholarly source; may have useful references but not peer-reviewed
• Credible sites often have scholarly affiliations and clear author information
• Evaluation steps for online sources:
  • Is the author identifiable? Credentials and affiliation?
  • Is there evidence for claims (citations, bibliography)? Are sources current?
  • What is the site’s purpose? Inform, persuade, or sell? Advertising bias?
  • Is the site sponsored by a reputable organization? Any potential bias?
  • Is the site regularly updated?
  • Do linked sites come from reputable institutions?
• If credibility is unsure, consult a professor or reference librarian
• For online primary sources: apply 2b-1 criteria; for online secondary sources: apply 2b-2 criteria

2b-4 Tips for evaluating web sites (summary)

• Author identity and credentials
• Evidence and up-to-date sources; explicit citations
• Site sponsorship and potential bias
• Purpose and potential advertising influence
• Consistency with other credible sources
• Currency and quality of linked sites

2b-5 Practical guidance

• When in doubt, prioritize scholarly sources and primary documents
• Use online sources to locate and access materials, then verify credibility through established criteria
• Always cross-check online findings with print or reputable databases