The Rise of Alexander and the Hellenistic World

Overview of Hellenistic Period

• Transition from Greek city-states to the dominance of Macedonia.

• Key figures: King Philip II and Alexander the Great.

Greek City-States (300 BC)

• Constant conflicts among city-states (prestige and bragging rights).

  • Rivalries: Particularly prominent between Athens, Sparta, and Thebes.

  • Internal Disunity: City-states prioritized their individual autonomy over pan-Hellenic unity.

• No unified leadership among the city-states; external unification needed.

• Threat from Persia as a significant external force, often exploiting Greek divisions.

Macedonia and King Philip II

• Region of Macedonia viewed as distant cultural cousin to Greek city-states.

  • Cultural Context: Often considered semi-barbaric by the more 'civilized' southern Greeks.

• Philip II's history of living among city-states to learn their cultures and politics.

• Philip's vision:

  • Unification of Greek city-states, by diplomacy or force.

  • Plan to challenge Persia for its role in Greek disunity and ancient grievances.

  • Military Reforms: Developed a professional army known for the Macedonian Phalanx, which utilized the sarissa (a long pike, 4-6 meters long).

Unification Strategy

• Initially attempts peaceful integration through mediation and strategic alliances.

• Known as an arbiter to prevent conflicts (Example: negotiating between Thebes and Corinth).

• Gaining trust among city-states, especially problematic for traditional powers like Athens and Sparta, who valued their independence above all.

• Gradual Expansion: Systematically incorporated smaller states into a network of alliances.

Battle of Chaeronea (338 BC)

• Coalition of city-states (Athens, Thebes, and other allies) vs. Philip's veteran forces.

• Philip decisively defeats the coalition, solidifying Macedonian hegemony.

• Establishes the Hellenic League (also known as the League of Corinth).

  • The League represents unity under Macedonian rule, ostensibly to maintain peace.

  • Philip retains control over foreign affairs, war, and trade, effectively ending Greek city-state independence.

After Philip: Alexander the Great

• Philip II assassinated before he can fulfill his campaign against Persia.

  • Succession: Alexander III (later known as Alexander the Great) ascends to the throne at age 20.

• Inherits Philip's well-trained army and plans to confront Persia.

Initial Challenges

• Before initiating an invasion, faces rebellion in Thebes and rumors of his death.

• Destroys Thebes completely, selling its citizens into slavery, to send a brutal message of retribution to other Greek states opposing him.

Invasion of Persia

• Alexander prepares an army of about 40,000-50,000 men (including cavalry, infantry) against a much larger Persian force, often estimated in the hundreds of thousands.

• Key Advantages:

  • Smaller, highly disciplined, and professional army is more maneuverable and easier to supply.

  • Well-trained forces, unified under a charismatic leader, compared to disorganized Persian defenses reliant on mercenaries and disparate satrapies.

  • Superior cavalry tactics and combined arms approach (infantry and cavalry working together).

Notable Battles

• Battle of Granicus River (334 BC):

  • Alexander's first major engagement in Asia, a surprising victory against Persian satraps.

  • Boosts morale and momentum for Alexander’s campaign and secures a foothold in Asia Minor.

• Battle of Issus (333 BC):

  • Alexander confronts and defeats King Darius III personally.

  • Darius flees, leaving his family (mother, wife, daughters) to be captured by Alexander.

• Continued Campaigns:

  • Moves through Asia Minor, securing coastal cities and strategic locations.

  • Invades Egypt, positioning himself as a liberator from Persian rule.

  • Crowning in Egypt portrays him as a Pharaoh, linking his rule to ancient Egyptian traditions.

• Battle of Gaugamela (331 BC):

  • Major, decisive clash between Alexander and Persian King Darius III on an open plain.

  • Alexander wins despite being significantly outnumbered, using brilliant tactical maneuvers (e.g., the 'wedge' formation).

  • Darius flees again and is later killed by his own forces (Bessus, a satrap), leaving Alexander as the undisputed ruler of the Persian Empire.

Alexander's Extended Campaign

• Alexander continues his conquests into India, facing fierce resistance from local rulers like King Porus at the Battle of the Hydaspes River.

• Troops mutiny after eight years of continuous campaigning and thousands of miles traveled; leaders demand to return home, weary and homesick.

• Returns to Babylon with the intention to consolidate his vast empire, reorganize administration, and potentially conquer Carthage and Arabia, but dies in Babylon before executing further plans (323 BC).

  • Cause of Death: Debated; possibly fever, poisoning, or excessive drinking.

After Alexander's Death (323 BC)

• Questions arise immediately about succession and the future of the vast, newly formed empire, as Alexander had no obvious adult heir.

• Key Figures: Alexander's leading generals, known as the Diadochi (Successors), vie for control.

  • General Antigonus (The One-Eyed).

  • General Seleucus (Nicator).

  • General Ptolemy (Soter).

• Generals split the empire through a series of wars (Wars of the Diadochi) lasting for decades, leading to the formation of three main Hellenistic kingdoms:

  • Antigonus: Inherits Macedonia and Greece (the Antigonid Kingdom) and exerts control over the Hellenic League.

  • Seleucus: Governs much of the former Persian Empire, establishing the vast Seleucid Empire, which faced constant internal rebellions and challenges due to its size and diverse populations.

  • Ptolemy: Controls Egypt and surrounding territories, founding the long-lasting Ptolemaic dynasty (which ruled until the death of Cleopatra in 30 BC).

The Hellenistic World (300-200 BC)

• Defined by blending of cultures from Greek, Persian, Egyptian, and other civilizations, known as syncretism.

• Flourishment of urban life, intellectualism, and innovation in science, art, philosophy, and commerce.

• Philosophies: New philosophical schools emerge, such as Stoicism (founded by Zeno of Citium) and Epicureanism (founded by Epicurus), focusing on ethics and individual well-being in a changing world.

Urban Centers of the Hellenistic World

• Emphasis on city life for trade, culture, and innovation; cities served as centers of power and cultural exchange.

• Examples of Significant Cities:

  • Antioch: Land trade hub founded by Seleucus in Syria, significant for its commerce, strategic location, and large population.

  • Rhodes: Water trade locus known for its formidable navy, excellent harbor, and the famous Colossus of Rhodes (one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World), a massive statue of the sun god Helios.

  • Alexandria: Founded by Alexander himself as the capital of his Egyptian domain:

  • A meticulously planned city, designed with a grid system, impressive public buildings, and a famous lighthouse, the Pharos of Alexandria.

  • Became the foremost center for cultural, educational, and economic activities in the Hellenistic world.

  • Library of Alexandria: Aim to house all knowledge from across the known world; approximately 700,000 documents (scrolls) at its peak, attracting scholars and thinkers.

Innovations and Scientific Advancements

• Significant contributions across various fields:

  • Mathematics and Geometry: Euclid formalized geometry with his Elements. Archimedes made breakthroughs in mechanics, hydrostatics, and mathematics (e.g., calculation of pi, the Archimedes screw).

  • Astronomy: Contributions from individuals such as Aristarchus and Eratosthenes:

  • Aristarchus: Proposed the heliocentric theory of the universe (Earth revolves around the Sun), though initially rejected in favor of the geocentric model.

  • Eratosthenes: Calculated the Earth's circumference as about 24,700 miles, remarkably close to the actual measurement of 24,900 miles, using geometry and shadow measurements.

  • Medicine: Herophilus and Erasistratus pioneered anatomical dissection and physiological studies.

Popular Interests in the Hellenistic World

• Not merely focused on profound scientific advancements; also included practical interests and public Spectacles.

• Alexandria known for its magnificent zoo housing diverse animal species from various regions, demonstrating curiosity about the natural world and the reach of trade networks:

  • Notably included a polar bear, illustrating broad connections and trade networks across the Hellenistic world (possibly acquired through trade with northern regions).

Legacy of the Hellenistic Period

• Creation of a culturally rich, diverse society characterized by intellectual cross-pollination.

• Set the stage for future connections and conquests, particularly with the rise of Roman influence in this Hellenistic context, as Rome absorbed much of the Hellenistic cultural and political landscape.

• A blend of established empires, vibrant cultural exchanges, and groundbreaking scientific innovations birthed during the