Media in the American Political System
- # The Role of the Media in the American Political System
- ## Improving Democracy
- Voters receive information from various media outlets
- occupy a critical role in maintaining democratic institutions within the American political system
- colloquially occupy the position of “the fourth branch” or “fourth estate,”
- provide the public with information necessary to hold their elected representatives accountable
- separation allows voters to learn about political occurrences in a manner free from direct government influence
- preserve civil liberties
- First Amendment guarantees the freedom of the press from government oversight
- ## Creating Collective Dilemmas
- the media can perpetuate principal-agent problems by serving as the agents of political institutions
- may attempt to influence the government indirectly via members of the public who trust the media to provide information about political activities
- # The Evolution of the American Media
- has existed since the founding, as the public possessed a demand for political information before participating in elections.
- questionable, as early media did not follow any professional guidelines related to objectivity or accuracy in reporting.
- ## Early Political Media
- Newspapers owned by the major political parties served as the earliest form of American political media
- Many members of the public did not possess the financial or cognitive resources necessary to consume this media.
- ### The Penny Press
- reduced the costs of newspaper production and lowered consumer prices from six cents to one cent.
- Audience expansion compelled newspaper outlets to feature sensationalized stories about politics and other topics to maximize the profits from their more affordable papers.
- ### Efforts to Improve Credibility
- The growing demand for transparency, accountability, and objectivity inspired additional changes in political media
- Colleges and universities began offering journalism degrees to train credible reporters who covered stories from a more objective perspective based on standardized requirements
- bylines inspired reporters to deliver information in a manner consistent with these standards
- ## New Political Media
- In the 1950s and 1960s, television news stories began to provide the public with political information.
- quickly assumed the status as the most popular medium
- As the popularity of television news persisted, the public’s demand for additional context surrounding news stories also increased
- Details about the historical relevance or future implications of a new policy proposal or political issue facilitated the ease with which the public interpreted the story and formed subsequent opinions on the issue
- ### Cable News Networks
- The fragmentation of the media as a result of the proliferation of cable news networks expanded the choices of channels to the consumer, and it also affected the content of news they consumed
- Specialized news networks that featured conservative or liberal pundits provided channels that appealed to their respective ideological bases
- contributed to increased polarization among members of the public, as voters now could stay inside their echo-chambers, contexts in which they expose themselves only to information that comports with their preconceptions about politics, thereby reducing their awareness of news stories that challenged their world views.
- ### Internet
- The expansion of the internet has also improved access to political media
- current political media ultimately perpetuates partisan polarization in the American political system
- some voters may be unaware of the relevant information needed to hold their representatives accountable
- has contributed to increased variation in political knowledge among segments of the public
- # Media Markets and Their Motivations
- profit motive affects both the content of political media and the coverage of political events
- strive to promote content that will attract large audiences to maximize the return
- private corporations own most of the news media and strive to make a profit with their coverage of political news stories
- ## Rise of Infotainment
- combine information and entertainment to attract a particular type of consumer
- ### Government Attempts to Regulate the Media
- the [[First Amendment]] generally protects the independence of the press from excessive government regulation
- The Federal Communications Commission issued the [[Fairness Doctrine]] in 1949 which required media companies to present salient political issues in an ideologically balanced manner
- abandoned in 1987, scholars cite the current absence of this sort of law as another factor driving rampant partisan polarization.
- the FCC promoted the [[Equal-Time Rule]] in 1927 in an effort to promote fairness in access to the media among politicians from both parties
- remains on the books today, as it functions as a popular government regulation of the media
- # Media Bias
- ## Ideological Bias
- occurs when media outlets devote their time and resources to advancing stories from one ideological perspective
- The two most common political ideologies in the United States are [[liberalism]] and [[conservatism]]
- furthers polarization
- ## Gatekeeping Bias
- involves the media covering certain stories while ignoring others
- directly influences perceptions of issue salience
- ## Coverage Bias
- occurs when media outlets cover a story but devote more time to a specific component of the story than others
- affects public perceptions of the story itself, and if done repeatedly, may even influence public opinion about the general issue at large
- ## Statement Bias
- occurs when media sources inject their own opinions into factual details related to a particular story
- voters may develop confusion as to the facts of a particular issue if they are unable to ascertain which components of a news story detail the events and which components reflect the views of a media source
- # Media Effects
- The media uses specific tactics to shape the manner in which people evaluate the content they consume
- these media effects can result in principal-agent problems
- ## Priming
- increasing the accessibility of a consideration related to a political issue.
- involves the order in which the media cover components of a news story.
- order effects
- ## Framing
- involves highlighting a particular aspect of a political issue to manipulate particular opinions in the minds of their consumers
- wording effects