People's Movement Against Ecological Conservation Policies in the Western Ghats: Reflections from Kerala, India

Overview of the Western Ghats and Idukki District

• The Western Ghats Region:

  • Covers an area of $129,037\,km^2$.
  • Recognized as a UNESCO "World Heritage Status" site.
  • One of the eight wealthiest "biodiversity hotspots" in the world.
  • Spans six states in India, from Gujarat in the north to Tamil Nadu in the south.
  • Supports a population of approximately $25\,crore$.

• Kerala State Context:

  • Located on the southern end of peninsular India.
  • Renowned historically (since the $14^{th}$ century) for the export of spices to the global market.
  • Key resources include timber (teak wood), tea, and high-demand international spices.

• Idukki District Profile:

  • A prominent high-range district in Kerala with the lowest population density in the state.
  • Composed largely of mountainous terrain within the Western Ghats.
  • Demographics: The population consists of indigenous tribes, migrant farmers from the Kerala mainland, and bonded plantation laborers originally brought from Tamil Nadu and the Coorg region of Karnataka.

Historical Context of Human Settlement and Deforestation

• Early Settlements:

  • Traces of human habitation in Idukki date back to the Stone Age.
  • Traditional migration involved five Tamil groups settling in Marayur, Kanthallur, Keezhamthur, Karayur, and Kottakkudy.

• Colonial Influence and Plantation Economy:

  • British invasion began in $1860$ with the formation of the Tiford Estate in Peermade.
  • Peermade Hills were gifted by the Travancore King to Hendry Baker Jr. for coffee cultivation.
  • The market dominance of cheaper Brazilian coffee in the late $18^{th}$ century led to a decline in Indian coffee prices and the abandonment of estates.
  • Tea became the substitute crop; in $1877$, the Poonjar Kingdom leased the Kannan Devan Hills (Munnar Region) to Daniel Monroe for tea plantations.
  • Labor for tea plantations was recruited from Trichinapally and Salem districts in Tamil Nadu.

• State-Promoted Migration Schemes:

  • Post-World War I: To address the great famine, the Travancore province (ally of British rule) under Divan Sir C. P. Ramaswami Iyyer promoted the occupation of high lands in Idukki to "grow more food."
  • Post-World War II: The "Grow More Food Scheme" in the $1940s$ allotted $10,000\,acres$ in Ayyappankoil and Adimali, and $3,000\,acres$ in Kattappana for agriculture.
  • Ex-servicemen colonies were established in $1950$.
  • "High Range Colonization Scheme" ($1954$-$1955$): Launched by Minister Pattom Thanupillai, creating colonies in Kallar, Pattom, Marayur, Kanthallur, and Deviyur ($7,500\,acres$ total).
  • Infrastructure: British-built forest roads made migration to Idukki easier.

• Land Degradation and Population Trends:

  • By $1911$, agricultural encroachment in Travancore's high ranges (excluding plantations) covered $73.7\%$ of land.
  • By $1951$, this rose to $98.1\%$.
  • Population growth in Idukki between $1901$ and $1971$ was nearly $16$ times the state's general growth rate.

Theoretical Aspects and Environmental Sociology

• Definitions of Environment:

  • Physical Conditions: Air, water, and landforms vital for ecosystem survival and individual/community development.
  • Social and Cultural Conditions: Ethics, aesthetics, and economics that influence human behavior.

• Jurgen Habermas’s Theory of Communicative Action:

  • Lifeworld: The basic conception of society where action is coordinated through consensual understanding.
  • Systems: Economic and political action coordinated by self-interest.
  • Application: In the Western Ghats, social movements use communicative action to counter the "instrumental" interests of the government. Resistance formulated two domains: scientific/expert collaboration for conservation and mass resistance through communicative claims-making.

Biological Wealth of the Western Ghats

• Flora Conservation:

  • Contains $27\%$ of India’s total species.
  • Over $4,000$ species of flowering plants.
  • Evergreen trees: $645$ varieties, with $56\%$ being endemic.
  • Lower plants: $850$-$1,000$ bryophyte species (mosses and liverworts) with $28\%$ and $43\%$ endemism respectively.

• Fauna Populations (Species Count):

  • Butterflies: $330$
  • Ants: $350$
  • Odonates: $174$
  • Mollusks: $269$
  • Freshwater Fish: $288$
  • Amphibians: $220$
  • Reptiles: $225$
  • Birds: $500$
  • Mammals: $120$

Ecological Conservation Policy Frameworks

• Madhav Gadgil Report (Western Ghats Ecology Experts Panel - WGEEP):

  • Stressed environmental degradation caused by "thoughtless exploitation" of non-renewable resources by corporate houses in the neoliberal era.
  • Recommendations:
    • Promotion of organic agriculture and phasing out chemical pesticides/weedicides within $5\,years$.
    • Incentive payments for conservation initiatives.
    • Strict restriction on Genetically Modified (GM) crops.
    • Ban on filling wetlands and conversion of public land to private land.
    • Restriction on road/infrastructure expansion, new hill stations, and new polluting industries.
    • Promotion of decentralized renewable energy and minimal impact tourism.
    • Establishment of Biodiversity Management Committees (BMCs) and preparation of People’s Biodiversity Registers.
    • Emphasis on GramSabhas and grassroots level decision-making.

• Kasturirangan Report (High-Level Working Group - HLWG):

  • Appointed in $2012$ to review the Gadgil report following widespread protest.
  • Accepted by the Ministry of Environment and Forests (MoEF) on $19\,October\,2013$.
  • Key Differences:
    • Omitted $3,100\,km^2$ of agricultural land, plantations, and habitations from the Ecologically Sensitive Zone (ESZ).
    • Identified $123$ villages in Kerala as Ecologically Sensitive Areas (ESAs).
    • Banned mining, quarrying, thermal power plants, and large buildings (over $2,000\,m^2$) or townships (over $50\,ha$) in ESAs.
    • Criticized for favoring big plantations while neglecting small farmers.

Environmental Movements and Resistance

• Key Agitations in Kerala:

  • $1964$: K. A. Rahman led a protest against water pollution in the Chaliyar River caused by Grasim Industries.
  • Silent Valley (1970s): Kerala Sastra Sahitya Parishad (KSSP) resisted a dam project on the Kunthipuzha river to protect the rainforest.
  • Plachimada Struggle (2002): Led by Mayilamma and the Anti Coca-Cola Peoples Struggle Committee against groundwater exploitation.
  • Save the Western Ghats Movement (SWGM): Coordinated a march in $1986$ following a national consultation in Goa (Peaceful Society).

• Role of Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs):

  • Estimated $57$ NGOs with environmental interests in Kerala.
  • Key Organizations: World Wide Fund for Nature-India (WWF-India), Society for Environment Education Kerala (SEEK), Society for the Protection of Environment Kerala (SPEK), Environmental Resources Research Centre (ERRC), and Thanal.

Challenges to Policy Implementation in Idukki

• The Land Right Dilemma:

  • Many people in Idukki have lived for decades without a "Title Deed" (Tenure Rights).
  • Lack of titles prevents access to bank loans and government subsidies.
  • The Cardamom Hill Reserves (CHR) and "Kuthakappattom" (lease contracts) are legal barriers to securing deeds.

• Information Asymmetry and Disinformation:

  • Fear of eviction was triggered by disinformation regarding the Gadgil and Kasturirangan reports.
  • Information was largely transmitted through local tea shops, churches, and political campaigns rather than official scientific channels.
  • The church, political parties, and land mafias are identified as groups that misled farmers to protect vested interests.

• Ayyappankoil Eviction (1961):

  • Development-induced displacement for the Idukki Hydroelectric Project.
  • Historical precedent that fostered deep-seated insecurity among settler farmers, many of whom were Christians under church influence.

Conclusions and Policy Recommendations

• Participatory Approach: Conserving biodiversity must include local populations; exclusion leads to resource exploitation and social suffering.
• Environment Education: Necessary to counteract disinformation and create sustainability awareness at the Grama Panchayat level.
• Ownership Security: Providing Title Deeds to migrant farmers is a critical step to ensure livelihood security.
• Decentralized Planning: Strengthening Biodiversity Management Committees (BMCs) and community forest management.
• Agrarian Reform: Transforming agricultural restrictions into beneficial projects, such as promoting organic mixed farming to tackle human-animal conflicts.