15. Personality Assessment
DEFINING PERSONALITY
The term personality has various meanings, including:
Temperament: Refers to the natural predisposition of an individual’s thoughts, feelings, and behaviors.
Observed behavior: Described as "the end product of our habit system" (Watson, 1924).
Unseen quality: Defined as "dynamic organization within the individual of those psychological systems that determine his unique adjustment to his environment" (Allport).
TRAIT, STATES, AND TYPES
Trait: Defined as dimensions of individual differences in tendencies to exhibit consistent patterns of thoughts, feelings, and actions.
Traits are assumed to be relatively stable over time, vary among individuals, and influence behavior.
Example words that reflect personality traits include: outgoing, passive, extrovert, perfectionist.
Traits associated with emotional qualities include: happy, anxious, moody.
States: Refers to the transitory exhibition of some traits.
Unlike traits, which represent enduring personality characteristics, states usually denote temporary behavior tendencies.
Types: Can be regarded as general descriptions of a person, clustering various traits together.
PERSONALITY INVENTORIES
Personality inventories are tools commonly used to identify and measure the structure and features of one's personality or a characteristic way of thinking, feeling, and behaving.
Some inventories measure specific traits or states, while others evaluate broad personality dimensions encompassing a wide range of characteristics and attributes.
Personality inventories can also be utilized for increasing self-knowledge.
USAGE OF PERSONALITY INVENTORIES
Various professions employ personality inventories for specific purposes:
Career counselors: Administer personality inventories to assist individuals in career selection.
Psychologists: Use inventories to narrow down varied symptoms for diagnostic purposes.
School counselors: Utilize inventories to determine if difficulties are related to students’ academic problems.
Employment counselors: Identify personality attributes that contribute to effective work performance.
Neuropsychologists: Assess the extent of cognitive and behavioral effects of brain injuries through personality inventories.
APPROACHES TO PERSONALITY INVENTORY DEVELOPMENT
Rational Approach
Involves utilizing reason and deductive logic to construct test items.
Example: Woodworth Personal Data Sheet: Considered the first structured personality inventory, consisting of a 116-item self-report tool assembled for psychiatric screening during U.S. entry into WWI.
Theory-based Approach
Personality inventories are constructed based on established theories of personality.
Examples include projective techniques rooted in psychodynamic theory and the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) based on Jung’s personality type theory.
Criterion Group Approach
An empirical method of constructing personality tests that selects items able to discriminate between relevant criterion groups and control groups.
The focus is on the discriminating power of the instrument.
Example: Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI).
Factor Analysis
An empirical approach using statistical procedures to:
Analyze interrelationships among many variables (e.g., personality traits).
Explain these variables in terms of their underlying dimensions (factors).
Examples: 16 Personality Factors, NEO Personality Inventory.
Combined Approach
Example: Millon Clinical Multiaxial Inventory (MCMI-III): Initially theory-based items are derived from Millon's theories of personality and psychopathology, followed by criterion group procedures.
CATEGORIES OF PERSONALITY INVENTORIES
STRUCTURED PERSONALITY INVENTORIES
Also known as objective personality inventories, these are standardized self-report instruments comprising items presented to the individual who indicates how accurately these items describe their personality using a limited set of response options.
Responses are not evaluated for correctness but are scored concerning the measured personality characteristics.
SCORING AND INTERPRETATION
Scoring can be conducted quickly and reliably through various means (hand scoring, computer scoring) and can be interpreted accurately and efficiently using computerized software programs.
Structured personality inventories may either have a broad or narrow scope.
Broad scope: Example: MMPI-2.
Narrow focus: Inventories aiding in:
Screening and diagnosing mental disorders.
Developing treatment plans.
Monitoring treatment progress.
Evaluating treatment outcomes.
Example: Beck Depression Inventory.
MINNESOTA MULTIPHASIC PERSONALITY INVENTORY (MMPI-2)
Frequently utilized by clinicians to assist in diagnosing mental disorders and selecting appropriate treatment methods.
Administered to individuals aged 18 and older with a minimum reading level equivalent to sixth grade.
Comprises 567 true/false questions and requires 60 to 90 minutes to complete.
Can be administered via hand, audio cassette, or computer.
Contains: 10 clinical scales, 9 validity scales, and additional scales/subscales (e.g., content scales, supplementary scales).
INTERPRETING MMPI-2 SCORES
MMPI-2 scores are reported as T-scores with specific interpretation steps:
Clinicians first examine the validity scale scores to ensure the profile contains valid, useful, and relevant information regarding the client's personality and clinical issues.
Upon confirming validity, clinicians evaluate the clinical scale scores.
Inferences should be based not only on elevated scores on one clinical scale but collectively, considering the individual’s background and presenting problem.
MMPI-2 VALIDITY AND CLINICAL SCALES
A table (e.g., Table 12.1) lists validity scales including:
Cannot Say (CNS): Total number of unanswered questions.
Variable Response Inconsistency (VRIN): Detects random or inconsistent responding; a T score of 80 or higher may invalidate the test.
True Response Inconsistency (TRIN): Identifies picking all true or false answers; a T score at or above 80 might invalidate the test.
Lie Scale (L): Detects unintentional underreporting; a T score at or above 65 signals potential invalidity.
K Scale: Assesses intentional underreporting; a T score of 80 or above may indicate dishonesty and invalidate the test.
Other clinical scales (e.g., Hypochondriasis, Depression, Hysteria, etc.) are categorized similarly, indicating specific psychological symptoms.
MYERS-BRIGGS TYPE INDICATOR (MBTI)
Developed in the 1940s by Katherine Cook Briggs and Isabel Briggs Myers.
Instrument categorizes individual preferences into four dichotomies:
Extraversion (E) or Introversion (I): Refers to where an individual prefers to focus their energy.
Extraversion: Directs energy toward the external world of people, things, and situations.
Introversion: Focuses energy inward toward ideas, emotions, and beliefs.
Sensing (S) or Intuition (N): Relates to how individuals prefer to acquire information.
Sensing: Prefers factual, objective information.
Intuition: Looks beyond the concrete to assess possibilities.
Thinking (T) or Feeling (F): Indicates how individuals prefer to make decisions.
Thinking: Bases decisions on logic and objective analysis.
Feeling: Makes decisions based on personal values and subjective evaluation.
Judging (J) or Perceiving (P): Refers to how individuals prefer to organize their lives.
Judging: Prefers structured, stable, organized living.
Perceiving: Values spontaneity and flexibility.
These categories combine to form 16 possible personality types.
NEO PERSONALITY INVENTORY REVISED (NEO-PI-R)
A personality inventory based on the five-factor model of personality, comprising the following components:
Neuroticism: Tendency to experience negative emotions (e.g., anxiety, hostility, depression).
Extraversion: Amount of energy directed outward into the social realm (e.g., warmth, gregariousness, positive emotions).
Openness to Experience: Willingness to engage with new ideas and experiences (e.g., fantasy, creativity).
Agreeableness: Reflects friendliness and consideration (e.g., trust, altruism).
Conscientiousness: Associated with responsibility and dedication (e.g., achievement striving, self-discipline).
The tool consists of 240 statements rated on a 5-point scale, with both self-report (Form S) and observer report (Form R) versions available.
The NEO Five-Factor Inventory (NEO-FFI) is a shorter version with 60 items.
EDWARDS PERSONAL PREFERENCE SCHEDULE (EPPS)
The first structured personality inventory aims to measure Murray’s manifest needs (1938).
Developed by Allen L. Edwards, aims to measure essential needs objectively.
EPPS consists of 225 pairs of statements (210+15), requiring examinees to select which is more personally representative.
SOCIAL DESIRABILITY AND TEST RESPONSE
Social desirability response set: The tendency of examinees to respond based on perceived desirability rather than accurate self-reflection.
Each statement in an item pair has equal social desirability.
15 NEEDS OF EPPS
Achievement (ach): To accomplish difficult or significant tasks.
Deference (def): To conform to others’ decisions.
Order (ord): To maintain organization and neatness.
Exhibition (exh): To be the center of attention.
Autonomy (aut): To be independent in decision-making.
Affiliation (aff): To engage in group activities with friends.
Intraception (int): To analyze one's motives and feelings.
Succorance (suc): To receive emotional support from others.
Dominance (dom): To lead and influence others.
Abasement (aba): To accept blame and feel inferior.
Nurturance (nur): To help those in trouble and extend forgiveness.
Change (chg): To engage in new experiences.
Endurance (end): To continue working until a task is completed.
Heterosexuality (het): To engage with the opposite sex.
Aggression (agg): To confront differing viewpoints.
PROJECTIVE INSTRUMENTS AND TECHNIQUES
GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS
Projective techniques require clients to produce responses amid ambiguity, revealing elements of their personal characteristics.
Strongly linked with psychodynamic theories highlighting unconscious processes.
THE RORSCHACH TEST
Developed by Herman Rorschach, measures individuals' perceptions through inkblot analysis.
Consists of 10 bilaterally symmetrical inkblots (5 black-and-white, 3 multicolored, 2 black, white, and red).
The test comprises two phases:
Free association phase
Inquiry phase: Determines the features influencing the test taker’s perceptions.
THEMATIC APPERCEPTION TEST
Based on Henry Murray’s theory, using a series of black-and-white pictures that evoke storytelling.
Examinees create narratives about each picture, which undergo analysis to uncover themes and motives.
VERBAL PROJECTIVE TECHNIQUES
Defined by Koppits (1982) as methods requiring verbal stimuli and responses.
Examples include sentence and story completion tasks.
PROJECTIVE DRAWING
Includes techniques such as Draw A Person (DAP) and family drawing exercises.
Kinetic Family Drawing: Explores a child’s perception of family dynamic through drawings and subsequent inquiries.
GENERAL GUIDELINES FOR INTERPRETING DRAWINGS
Aspects to consider include:
Figure location and placement on the page.
Size and detail of the figures.
Pencil pressure and stroke quality (e.g., line quality).
Organization and symmetry of the figures.
Use of erasures, distortions, and omissions.
Perspective and shading used in drawings.
POSITIVE FOCUS IN PERSONALITY INVENTORIES
Positive psychology studies conditions and processes enhancing optimal functioning and assessing positive personality aspects (Gable & Haidt, 2005).
Individual happiness and life satisfaction are crucial criteria for mental health and effective counseling outcomes.
Examples: Quality of Life Inventory (QOLI) and Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWLS).
QUALITY OF LIFE INVENTORY
Measures satisfaction based on how well individuals' needs, goals, and wishes are being met across important life areas.
Consists of 32 items, yielding overall scores as T-scores, classified into very low, low, average, and high satisfaction levels.
SELF-ESTEEM INVENTORIES
Positively focused assessments specifically target self-esteem metrics.
Defined by Rosenberg as the overall favorable or unfavorable attitude towards oneself (as referenced in Drummond & Jones, 2010).
Examples: Coopersmith Self-Esteem Inventory, Piers-Harris Children's Self-Concept Scale (second edition), and others.
COOPERSMITH SELF-ESTEEM INVENTORY
Assesses general and specific self-attitudes, first developed for children.
Comprised of scales for various self-esteem contexts: general self, peer relationships, home environment, and academic settings.
OTHER SELF-ESTEEM INVENTORIES
Culture-Free Self-Esteem Inventories (third edition) measure self-esteem across age groups (6 to 18 years).
Tennessee Self-Concept Scale (second edition) targets ages 7 to 90 years.
Divided into scales for self-concept and supplementary measures.
Multidimensional Self-Esteem Inventory (MSEI) employs a Likert scale to assess multiple self-esteem components.
RESPONSE STYLES
Response style (or response bias) indicates typical ways in which test-takers respond to items, potentially distorting results.
Common styles include:
Social desirability: Responding in a manner that presents oneself favorably.
Acquiescent: Agreeing with statements irrespective of content.
No acquiescent: Disagreeing with statements presented.
Deviance: Giving unusual responses.
Extreme: Choosing extreme ratings instead of middle-scale responses.
Gambling/cautiousness: Guessing when unsure or avoiding guesses altogether.