Intergenerational Continuities and Discontinuities in Parenting Styles Notes

Intergenerational Continuities and Discontinuities in Parenting Styles

Abstract

This research investigated intergenerational continuities and discontinuities in parenting styles by surveying 286 mothers and 274 fathers. The participants provided data about their perceptions of their own parenting styles and recollections of their parents' styles. The results showed intergenerational continuities for authoritarian and permissive parenting, with stronger similarities within the same gender. Significant cross-gender similarities were also found. Intergenerational discontinuities were observed for authoritative parenting, and current parents perceived themselves as less authoritarian and more authoritative/permissive than their parents, suggesting a socio-cultural shift towards more democratic child-rearing practices.

Introduction

Parents significantly influence their children's development and their children's subsequent parenting practices. This leads to intergenerational continuities in parenting practices and child development outcomes. Parenting styles can be characterized along two dimensions: responsiveness and demandingness.

• Authoritative Parenting: Combines high warmth with inductive reasoning, reasonable demands, and consultation with the child. This style has been linked to the best social, emotional, and academic outcomes, especially in Caucasian middle-class families.

• Authoritarian Parenting: Low warmth and responsiveness, with a high value on conformity, obedience, and power-assertive control. This style is correlated with lower child competence, increased anxiety, and withdrawal.

• Permissive Parenting: High warmth but low control.

• Neglectful Parenting: Low warmth and low control.

Parenting is recognized as an important variable in child development, and intergenerational continuities exist in behavioral dispositions. Intergenerational continuity in parenting is considered a mediating mechanism in the transfer of risk between generations. However, discontinuities also occur, and it's crucial to understand both continuities and discontinuities.

Factors such as the quality of marital relationships, personality variables (neuroticism, conscientiousness), marital affinity, and education levels can modify parenting styles between generations. Social and cultural changes also play a role in altering parenting practices. Research suggests a shift from conformist, authoritarian parenting to more child-centered, democratic approaches, influenced by education levels.

Gender differences can influence intergenerational continuities, with mothers often perceived as more authoritative and less authoritarian than fathers. Sons may experience more authoritarian and less authoritative parenting than daughters. Studies on the influences of mothers and fathers on their children's parenting practices are limited, particularly for fathers. Some studies suggest that both sons and daughters acquire parenting scripts more from their mothers, while others argue for gender specificity in the intergenerational transfer of parenting styles.

The Present Study

The study aimed to address the gap in research by investigating same-gender and cross-gender intergenerational similarities and differences in reported parenting styles for both mothers and fathers. It focused on typical families with a normal range of parenting styles, rather than at-risk populations. Data were collected on current mothers' and fathers' perceptions of their own parenting styles and their recollections of their parents' styles.

Hypotheses:

1. Independent same-gender and cross-gender intergenerational continuities in parenting styles would be evident, with same-gender similarities being stronger.

2. Intergenerational similarities would be strongest between mothers and daughters, due to the primacy of the maternal parenting role.

3. Intergenerational similarities would be moderated by the socio-cultural shift between generations, with current parents perceiving themselves as less authoritarian and more authoritative than their parents.

Method

Participants:

A total of 560 members of the Australian community, including 286 mothers and 274 fathers with at least one child aged between 3 and 16 years, participated. Most participants were married or in a de facto relationship, with an average of 2.5 children. The sample had higher education levels than the general Australian population, according to the Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) 2001 data.

Instrument:

The questionnaire included:

1. Parental Authority Questionnaire – Revised (PAQ-R): Measures current parents’ self-reported parenting style (Reitman et al., 2002).

2. Parental Authority Questionnaire (PAQ): Assesses perceptions of the parenting styles of their own mother and father (Buri, 1991).

The PAQ consists of 30 items designed to measure permissive, authoritarian, and authoritative parenting styles based on Baumrind’s typology. Items are rated on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree).

• Examples of PAQ items:

  • Permissive: "While I was growing up my mother felt that in a well-run home the children should have their way in the family as often as the parents do."

  • Authoritarian: "As I was growing up my father let me know what behaviour he expected of me, and if I didn’t meet those expectations, he punished me."

• Example of PAQ-R item:

  • Authoritative: "I always encourage discussion when my children feel family rules and restrictions are unfair."

Buri’s (1991) analyses indicated that the PAQ is a psychometrically reliable measure, with test-retest reliability coefficients from $0.77$ to $0.92$ and internal consistency reliability coefficients from $0.74$ to $0.87$. Reitman et al. (2002) reported alpha coefficients from $0.72$ to $0.77$ for the Authoritarian and Permissive subscales and the Authoritative subscale for their Caucasian higher SES sample. Both studies established validity through multidisciplinary expert review and correlational studies. Buri (1991) showed that the PAQ was not vulnerable to social desirability response biases.

Procedure:

Pre-service education students at an Australian university administered the questionnaire to approximately six parents each as part of a fieldwork assignment. Students were given standard directions and instructed not to discuss answers or provide information about parenting styles before completion. Ethical clearance was obtained to use the completed questionnaires for research purposes.

Results

Psychometric Properties of the Parenting Scales

Confirmatory factor analyses were conducted using LISREL 7 to establish the three-factor structure identified by Buri (1991) and Reitman et al. (2002). Goodness of fit indices greater than $0.90$ indicate a good-fitting model, and root mean square residual values of $0.08$ or less are desirable (Tabachnick & Fidell, 2001).

• PAQ-R: Goodness of fit index was $0.861$, Adjusted goodness of fit index was $0.839$, and Root mean square residual was $0.063$.

• PAQ (own mother): Goodness of fit index was $0.824$, Adjusted goodness of fit index was $0.796$, and Root mean square residual was $0.096$.

• PAQ (own father): Goodness of fit index was $0.772$, Adjusted goodness of fit index was $0.737$, and Root mean square residual was $0.129$.

The PAQ-R demonstrated acceptable concordance with the three-factor structure, while the PAQ versions showed a more modest fit. Internal consistency reliability indices (Cronbach’s alpha) revealed that the PAQ had stronger psychometric properties than the PAQ-R. Coefficient alpha indicates the homogeneity of items, and coefficients of $0.80$ or higher are considered desirable (Anastasi & Urbina, 1997).

• PAQ-R: Authoritarian subscale was $0.79$, Permissive subscale was $0.71$, and Authoritative subscale was $0.72$.

• PAQ (own mother): Authoritarian subscale was $0.86$, Permissive subscale was $0.84$, and Authoritative subscale was $0.87$.

• PAQ (own father): Authoritarian subscale was $0.90$, Permissive subscale was $0.83$, and Authoritative subscale was $0.90$.

Despite some discrepancy in the relative psychometric strengths, the findings supported the use of the same three-factor structure for both the PAQ and PAQ-R. Subscale scores were calculated for each parent, ranging from 10 to 50.

Mean scores on the Permissive items were in the low 20s, suggesting disagreement. Authoritarian items had mean scores in the low to mid 30s, indicating neutral responses or low agreement. Authoritative items for current parents had scores approaching 40, suggesting general agreement.

Current mothers’ mean scores on the PAQ-R subscales were similar to those found by Reitman et al. (2002) for American mothers. Bivariate correlations showed significant positive correlations between current parents’ level of education and their own Authoritativeness ($r = 0.09$, p < 0.04) and their own mother’s Authoritativeness ($r = 0.13$, p < 0.002). Significant negative correlations were found between current parents’ level of education and their own Authoritarianism ($r = -0.28$, p < 0.001), their own mother’s Authoritarianism ($r = -0.19$, p < 0.001), and their own father’s Authoritarianism ($r = -0.10$, p < 0.02). Consequently, current parents’ level of education was used as a covariate in subsequent analyses.

Intergenerational Continuities in Reported Parenting Styles

Correlations were examined between current parents’ own parenting styles and those reported for their own mothers and fathers, with separate evaluations for mothers and fathers. Partial correlations were calculated, controlling for education, with Bonferroni-type adjustments. For Authoritarian and Permissive parenting styles, current parents’ own style was most strongly related to the same style reported for their same-gender parent, and was also significantly correlated with the same style reported for their opposite-gender parent. No significant correlations were found between current parents’ Authoritativeness and the reported parenting styles of their own parents.

Hierarchical regression analyses were conducted to examine the unique contribution of the opposite-gender parent. All three variables (education, same-gender parent style, opposite-gender parent style) made significant independent contributions to both current mothers’ and current fathers’ Authoritarianism. Authoritarianism decreased with higher education levels, and the Authoritarianism of the opposite-gender parent had a significant independent influence. The same-gender parent’s Authoritarianism explained more variance for current fathers (22.4%) than mothers (9.6%).

Level of education was not related to current parents’ Permissiveness, but the Permissiveness of the opposite-gender parent had a significant independent effect. The same-gender parent’s Permissiveness explained more variance for current fathers (25.8%) than current mothers (22.5%). For Authoritativeness, current mothers' mother's reported Authoritativeness was the only significantly influencing variable, while for current fathers, the level of education was the only significant predictor.

The first hypothesis regarding independent same-gender and cross-gender continuities in reported parenting styles, with same-gender similarities being the stronger, was supported for Authoritarian and Permissive parenting styles, but not for Authoritative parenting. The second hypothesis, that intergenerational continuities would be stronger between mothers and daughters, was not supported.

Intergenerational Discontinuities in Reported Parenting Styles

To test the third hypothesis regarding perceived discontinuities, Analyses of Covariance (ANCOVAs) were conducted. The dependent variable was the subscale score of Authoritarian, Permissive, or Authoritative parenting, while current mothers or fathers provided a between-groups independent variable. Ratings of self, own mother, or own father were entered as a repeated measures independent variable, with parents’ education level as the covariate. Mauchly’s test of sphericity was significant (p < 0.05), and degrees of freedom were adjusted using the Huynh-Feldt Epsilon.

On the Authoritarian parenting subscales, a significant within-subjects effect was found ($F(2.0, 1013.6) = 3.26$, p < 0.04). Current parents had significantly lower mean Authoritarian scores than those reported for their own mothers ($F(1, 515) = 5.88$, p < 0.02) or fathers ($F(1, 515) = 4.45$, p < 0.04). There was a significant interaction effect ($F(2.0, 1013.6) = 3.21$, p < 0.02). Current mothers rated themselves as less Authoritarian than current fathers but rated their own mothers as more Authoritarian than current fathers ($F(1, 515) = 4.64$, p < 0.03). A significant interaction effect was observed in Authoritarian ratings of themselves and their fathers ($F(1, 515) = 5.16$, p < 0.02).

Significant differences were found on the Permissive subscales ($F(2.0, 1036.8) = 4.25$, p < 0.02). Current parents had higher mean Permissive scores than their own mothers ($F(1, 521) = 8.42$, p < 0.004) or fathers ($F(1, 521) = 4.70$, p < 0.03). No other significant differences emerged between mothers and fathers.

Significant differences appeared regarding Authoritative subscales ($F(2.0, 1025.6) = 58.65$, p < 0.001). Current parents had significantly higher mean Authoritative scores than their own mothers ($F(1, 520) = 90.68$, p < 0.001) or fathers ($F(1, 520) = 84.91$, p < 0.001). There was also a significant interaction effect ($F(2.0, 1025.6) = 12.50$, p < 0.001). Current mothers rated themselves as more Authoritative than current fathers, but rated their own mothers as less Authoritative than current fathers ($F(1, 520) = 19.41$, p < 0.001). A similar interaction effect was observed in Authoritative ratings of themselves and their fathers ($F(1, 520) = 18.03$, p < 0.001).

These results support the third hypothesis, indicating significant intergenerational variations in reported parenting styles, especially for Authoritative parenting. Further intergenerational differences related to Authoritative parenting were revealed when relationships between parenting styles were examined using partial correlations. Parents’ Permissiveness was significantly inversely related to their Authoritarianism, and Authoritativeness appeared to have a different relationship depending on whether individuals reported on their own parenting styles or reflected on the parenting they received.

When parents reflected on their own parenting styles, Authoritative parenting was significantly negatively associated with Permissiveness and unrelated to Authoritarianism. However, when they rated their own parents, Authoritative parenting was significantly positively associated with Permissiveness and negatively related to Authoritarianism. This pattern was consistent with Smetana’s (1995) findings.

Discussion

The study's results indicate both continuities and discontinuities between current parents' parenting styles and those they perceive their own parents used. Significant continuities exist in authoritarian and permissive parenting styles, even though today's parents report being less authoritarian and more permissive. Authoritative parenting is not strongly related across generations, suggesting current parents see themselves as distinct from their own parents in this respect. These findings align with previous studies showing the transmission of parental characteristics and the influence of a socio-cultural shift from authoritarian to democratic child-rearing practices.

Generational change appears partially mediated by education, as highlighted by Schaefer (1990, 1991). Parents with higher education levels reported being less authoritarian in the current study. The limited continuity in authoritative parenting may stem from this shift towards democratic child-rearing; however, the explanation may be more intricate. Authoritative practices could be interpreted differently by parents and children. Parents might perceive their efforts to uphold rules democratically, while children or adolescents could see discussions as leniency, akin to permissiveness. Such interpretations align with the correlation findings listed in table VI, where parent's self-ratings of Authoritativeness are negatively correlated with permissiveness. When rating their own parents, their views are often positively correlated to permissiveness. This may be simply due to intergenerational changes in authoritative parenting. This same pattern of correlations has been observed between Smetana (1995) between parent self-ratings and adolescent children ratings.

Compared to maternal parenting style research, there has been less focus on fathers, particularly in normative samples. The current study reveals gender findings. Fathers rated themselves as more authoritarian and less authoritative than mothers, aligning with prior father self-report studies (Smetana, 1995) and children's ratings of fathers (Conrade & Ho, 2001). However, unlike previous findings, sons did not receive higher authoritarian/lower authoritative parenting than daughters (Conrade & Ho, 2001; Russell et al., 1998). Current mothers viewed their parents as more authoritarian/less authoritative than current fathers. These results may reflect historical changes since the first-generation parents are older than parents in the samples used by Conrade and Ho (2001) and Russell et al. (1998).

Continuities are apparent for both permissive/authoritarian parenting styles; however, intergenerational similarities in reported parenting styles, in line with predictions are stronger between fathers and sons than mothers and daughters for authoritarian, emphasizing the important role fathers play, particularly with sons. Independent continuities in father-daughter and mother-son relationships further emphasize the father's role.

Compared with authoritarian and permissive parenting, the findings are less straightforward for authoritative parenting where weak or non-significant intergenerational continuities were found. These results, along with cross-cultural studies, suggest that more research must be done into dimensions of parenting.

The study does have a number of limitations. First, multiple data collectors were used and there may have been inconsistencies during collections. Second a single informant provided the self report and the study was also retrospective(Putallaz et al., 1998). However, this study has provided a systematic investigation in a normative Autstrlian sample, since parenting skills are powerful predictors of child developmental outcomes, future research should examine the significant issues related to authoritative parenting. Future research needs to investigate the transmission of parenting practices in normative, but lower socio-economic samples. Finally, current findings show fathers play an important role and emphasize the need to investigate the influence of fathers.

In the context of Solution Focused Therapy (SFT) applied to parent-child family therapy, the work environment typically involves families seeking assistance to navigate conflicts, enhance communication, and foster resiliency among family members. This setting is integral for addressing the dynamics of intergenerational issues, especially as they pertain to differing parenting styles and expectations across generations.

Client Presentation

Families may present with a variety of counseling issues, including:

• Communication Barriers: Parents and children may struggle to articulate feelings and expectations, leading to misunderstandings.

• Behavioral Concerns: Issues may arise such as defiance in children, which can be attributed to varying parenting styles influenced by the parents' own upbringing.

• Parenting Styles Conflict: Discrepancies in parenting approaches (e.g., authoritative vs. authoritarian) can lead to frustration and discord within the family.

• Emotional Distress: Family members might experience anxiety, depression, or stress due to ongoing relational conflicts or perceived failures in parenting.

Counselling Issues

When working in this context, several counseling issues may emerge:

• Resistance to Change: Family members might resist discussing past dynamics and default to familiar patterns of interaction.

• Focus on the Past vs. Present Solutions: Families may inadvertently focus on historical grievances rather than exploring solutions and strengths, which can be counterproductive in SFT.

• Generational Differences: Differences in cultural or generational perspectives on parenting and discipline can create misunderstandings between parents and children, leading to clashes and disengagement.

• Navigating Emotionally Charged Conversations: Addressing sensitive topics may evoke strong emotions, requiring careful facilitation to maintain a constructive dialogue.

In employing Solution Focused Therapy, practitioners aim to foster a collaborative environment where families can identify their strengths, articulate goals, and develop practical steps toward positive change, all while being mindful of the intergenerational context influencing their relational dynamics.