Egypt and the Outside World: Relations, Trade, and Imperialism

Overview of Egypt’s International Relations and Geographical Context

• Ancient Egypt maintained repeated contact with foreign populations from its earliest periods through trade expeditions, quarrying ventures, and warfare.

• Foreign regions interacting with Egypt are categorized into three primary geographical areas:

  • Africa: Comprising Nubia, Libya, and Punt.

  • Asia: Comprising Syria-Palestine (The Levant), Mesopotamia, Arabia, and Anatolia.

  • Northern and Eastern Mediterranean: Including Cyprus, Crete, the Sea Peoples, and the Greeks.

• Ethnic Groups in Africa:

  • Nubian groups over time included the A Group, the C Group, the Kerma civilization, the pan-grave culture, the kingdom of Kush, the Ballana culture, and the Blemmyes.

  • Ethiopian groups included pre-Axumite cultures and the Axum civilization.

• North-Eastern Neighbors: Beyond the Sinai peninsula, Egyptians encountered various towns and villages in the Levantine hills and coastal plains, and further afield, the rotating mosaic of empires in Mesopotamia and Anatolia.

• Western Neighbors (Libyans):

  • The collective term "Libyans" describes several different peoples in the Sahara.

  • Archaeological evidence is scarce; they are traditionally assumed to be nomadic or dependent on pastoralism based on textual references.

  • Substantive information regarding Libyan culture only emerges when they became part of Egyptian society during the late New Kingdom and the Third Intermediate Period.

Racial and Ethnic Identity of the Ancient Egyptians

• Linguistic Identity: Egyptians belonged to the Afro-Asiatic (Hamito-Semitic) language family, showing similarities to contemporary languages in both Africa and the Near East.

• Anthropological and Physical Identity:

  • Predynastic skeletal studies suggest a mixture of racial types, including negroid, Mediterranean, and European.

  • Bryan Emery and others once argued for a rapid conquest of Egypt at the start of the pharaonic period by racially distinct people from the east.

  • Modern scholars favor a slower demographic change, involving the gradual infiltration of physical types from Syria-Palestine via the eastern Delta.

• Artistic Self-Perception: The iconography of the Egyptians suggests they viewed themselves as situated midway between "black Africans" and "paler Asiatics."

• Social Status of Foreigners:

  • Origins from Nubia or Syria-Palestine were not necessarily barriers to high status, particularly during the cosmopolitan New Kingdom.

  • Maiherpri: A high official with demonstrably negroid features who received the high honor of burial in the Valley of the Kings during the reign of Thutmose III ($1479-1425 \text{ BC}$).

  • Aper-el: An official with a Near Eastern name who rose to the rank of vizier (the highest civil office below the king) in the late $18\text{th}$ Dynasty.

Iconography of Warfare, Conquest, and Subjugation

• The Nine Bows: A traditional term used to symbolize the enemies of Egypt, typically including Asiatics and Nubians. Their specific identities varied over time.

  • Symbolism: Depicted as rows of bows or bound captives.

  • Context: Often found on royal sandals, footstools, and daises to symbolically allow the pharaoh to tread upon his enemies.

  • Protective Function: The seal of the Valley of the Kings necropolis depicts nine bound captives surmounted by a jackal to protect tombs from foreign "depredations" and evil.

• The Smiting Pharaoh Icon:

  • One of the most enduring icons of Egyptian kingship.

  • First attested in the late predynastic Tomb $100$ at Hierakonpolis (late $4\text{th}$ millennium BC).

  • Found on temple pylons as late as the Roman Period.

• Captive Statues in Pyramid Complexes: Excavations at the $5\text{th}$ and $6\text{th}$ Dynasty complexes of Raneferef, Nyeuserra, Djedkara, Unas, Teti, Pepy I, and Pepy II (at Saqqara and Abusir) revealed statues of foreign captives, possibly originally lining the causeways.

• Ritual Execution and Cursing:

  • Execration texts: Early $12\text{th}$ Dynasty alabaster captive figures (now in Cairo) inscribed with lists of Nubian princes and insults used in cursing rituals.

  • Palaces: Bound captives featured in furniture and fittings to symbolize the pharaoh's suppression of "unrule" (chaos).

• The Rekhyt-bird Symbolism:

  • A lapwing or plover used to represent foreign captives or subject peoples.

  • Visually resembles a bound captive because its wings are pinioned behind its back.

  • First depicted on the Scorpion Macehead ($c. 3100 \text{ BC}$) hanging by their necks from standards of early Lower Egyptian provinces.

  • Ambiguity: By the reign of Djoser ($2686-2613 \text{ BC}$), they appear crushed under his feet, but in other contexts, they refer to the loyal subjects of the pharaoh.

Geography and the Definition of Borders

• Traditional Natural Borders: Western and Eastern Deserts, Sinai, the Mediterranean coast, and the Nile cataracts at Aswan.

• Concepts of the "Border":

  • Djer: An eternal and universal limit.

  • Tjash: An actual, movable geographical frontier set by deities or humans.

• Extension of Borders: Pharaohs were ideologically tasked with "extending the borders." The maximum extent was reached under Thutmose III, with stelae erected at the River Euphrates (Asia) and Kurgus (Nubia, between the $4\text{th}$ and $5\text{th}$ cataracts).

• Southern Frontier (Nubia):

  • Early Dynastic/Old Kingdom: The border was at Aswan (ancient swenet, meaning "trade").

  • The first cataract was an obstacle; a $7.5 \text{ km}$ mud-brick wall was built on the east bank to protect land trade routes (likely $12\text{th}$ Dynasty).

  • Middle Kingdom: Senusret III moved the border south to the Semna gorge, building four fortresses: Semna, Kumma, Semna South, and Uronarti.

• Defensive Lines (Fortresses):

  • Eastern Delta: The "Walls of the Ruler" (inebu heka) protected the Palestinian border.

  • Western Delta: A fortress in Wadi Natrun guarded against Libyans.

  • New Kingdom additions: Easterly sites (Tell Abu Safa, Tell el-Farama, Tell el-Heir, Tell el-Maskhuta) and westerly sites (el-Alamein, Zawiyet Umm el-Rakham).

Material Evidence for Early International Trade

• Inaccessible but Necessary Materials:

  • Turquoise: Sinai.

  • Silver: Anatolia or North Mediterranean via the Levant.

  • Copper: Nubia, Sinai, Eastern Desert.

  • Gold: Eastern Desert and Nubia.

  • Woods (Cedar, Juniper, Ebony): Western Asia and Tropical Africa.

  • Incense and Myrrh: Western Asia and Tropical Africa.

• Lapis Lazuli (khesbed):

  • Used from the Naqada II Period ($c. 3500-3200 \text{ BC}$).

  • Sourced from Badakhshan, Afghanistan ($4,000 \text{ km}$ from Egypt).

  • Specific quarry sites identified: Sar-i-Sang, Chilmak, Shaga-Darra-i-Robat-i-Paskaran, and Stromby.

• Pottery as Evidence:

  • Tomb U-j (Abydos, Naqada III, $c. 3200 \text{ BC}$): Contained $400$ Palestinian-style vessels, likely wine jars produced specifically for export.

  • Fragments of ivory handles from tomb $11-127$ depict rows of Asiatic captives.

  • Upper Egyptian expansion into the Delta may have been driven by a desire for direct contact with Palestine, bypassing Lower Egyptian middlemen (e.g., Maadi).

Interaction with Nubian Cultures: A-Group and C-Group

• The A Group ($c. 3500-2800 \text{ BC}$):

  • Inhabitants of Lower Nubia who traded for Egyptian stone vessels, amulets, and copper.

  • Khor Daoud: A trading station with silos containing Egyptian pottery (beer, wine, oil, cheese).

  • Rich tombs at Sayala and Qustul show elites profiting from the African trade route.

  • Gebel Sheikh Suleiman: A rock carving recording a $1\text{st}$ Dynasty militaristic campaign extending to the second cataract.

  • Decline: Impoverished by the $1\text{st}$ Dynasty, potentially due to Egyptian exploitation or environmental shifts toward pastoralism.

• The C Group ($c. 2300-1500 \text{ BC}$):

  • Tribal cattle-herders synchronous with the mid-$6\text{th}$ to early $18\text{th}$ Dynasties.

  • Characterized by hand-made black-topped pottery with white-pigmented incised decoration.

  • Territory taken over by Egypt in the early $12\text{th}$ Dynasty to prevent alliance with the rising Kerma culture in Upper Nubia.

The Land of Punt

• Context: Located in East Africa (likely southern Sudan or the Eritrean region of Ethiopia).

• History of Expeditions: Regular missions from the $5\text{th}$ Dynasty ($2494-2345 \text{ BC}$) until the reign of Rameses III in the $20\text{th}$ Dynasty.

• Products Obtained: Gold, aromatic resins, African blackwood, ebony, ivory, slaves, monkeys, and cyncocephalous baboons.

• Hatshepsut’s Expedition (Deir el-Bahri):

  • Depicts Puntite settlements: Conical reed huts on poles accessed by ladders.

  • Shows the environment: Palms and myrrh trees ($myrrh$ trees were shown being loaded onto ships for replanting in Egypt).

• Travel Routes: Possibly sea-based (ports of Quseir or Mersa Gawasis) or a Nile-overland route via Kurgus.

Theories on Imperialism and Foreign Policy

• Motivations for Imperialism: Debate exists between ideological imperatives, economic necessity, and socio-political factors.

• Middle Kingdom Strategy in Nubia:

  • Use of military force and permanent garrisons in the $12\text{th}$ Dynasty.

  • Askut: Massive granary space indicates use as a supply base.

  • Uronarti and Kor: Traces of suspected "campaign palaces."

• Middle Kingdom Strategy in Palestine:

  • No evidence for a permanent civilian presence.

  • Fragmentary annals of Amenemhat II and the Khusobek stele (Senusret III) record military expeditions against Shechem and other Levantine sites.

• New Kingdom Imperialism:

  • Documented via victory stelae and temple reliefs.

  • Policy of Acculturation: Local elites in Nubia and the Levant were encouraged to adopt Egyptian customs; their children were often educated in Egypt to ensure future indoctrination.

The Amarna Letters and Diplomatic Archives

• The Amarna Archive: $382$ clay cuneiform tablets found at Amarna (late $18\text{th}$ Dynasty).

• Contents: Correspondence between the Egyptian king and great powers (Babylon, Mitanni) or small city-states in Syria-Palestine (Canaan, Amurru, Upe).

• Historical Insight: Reveals the complex politics of city-states caught between the spheres of influence of Egypt, Mitanni, and the Hittite kingdom.

The Port City of Byblos (Gubla)

• Location: Canaanite coast, $40 \text{ km}$ north of modern Beirut.

• Function: Essential port for sourcing timber (Cedars of Lebanon) starting from the $2\text{nd}$ Dynasty ($2890-2686 \text{ BC}$).

• Cultural Fusion: The Obelisk Temple was dedicated to Ba'alat Gebal ("Lady of Byblos"), identified with the Egyptian goddess Hathor.

• Key Archaeological Finds:

  • Names of Amenemhat III and IV found in royal tombs.

  • Ahiram Sarcophagus: $10\text{th}$ century BC inscriptions in early alphabetic characters, found with objects belonging to Rameses II.

• Historical Timeline:

  • Peak of contact: $19\text{th}$ Dynasty.

  • Decline: $20\text{th}$ and $21\text{st}$ Dynasties (cf. the Tale of Wenamun).

  • Resurgence: $22\text{nd}$ and $23\text{rd}$ Dynasties, before being superseded by Tyre and Sidon.

The Sea Peoples: Migrations and Conflict

• Causes: Famine/crop failure in the northern/eastern Mediterranean in the $13\text{th}-12\text{th}$ centuries BC triggered migrations.

• Composition: A loose confederation of Aegean and Asia Minor groups (Ekwesh, Denen, Lukka, Sherden, Teresh, Shekelesh, and Peleset/Philistines).

• Nature of Movement: Not just raiders, but migrating families traveling with possessions in ox-drawn carts.

• Key Military Encounters:

  • Battle of Qadesh: Lukka, Sherden, and Peleset served as mercenaries for Rameses II.

  • Merenptah (Year 5, $1213-1203 \text{ BC}$): Successfully repelled an alliance of Sea Peoples (named in Karnak reliefs and the Israel Stele) and Libyans, killing $6,000$ enemies.

  • Rameses III (Year 8, $1184-1153 \text{ BC}$): Final confrontation involving both land and sea battles, memorialized at Medinet Habu.

Conclusion: The Nature of Egyptian International Relations

• Primary Motivations: Power, prestige, and the acquisition of exotic materials to bolster the authority of local and royal elites.

• Economic Systems: The national system for internal bureaucratic tax collection provided the framework for exacting tribute (inu) and war spoils from foreign territories.

• Cosmopolitanism: Despite native xenophobic biological ideologies, Egypt became a multicultural society from the New Kingdom onward, exhibiting tolerance for foreigners living in Egypt.

• Cultural Resilience: The core values and nation-state identity of Egypt were durable enough to survive prolonged periods of domination by Libyans, Kushites, Persians, and the Ptolemies.