Liberalism and Nationalism in Germany 1815–1871

THE GERMAN CONFEDERATION AND THE POST-NAPOLEONIC ORDER (1815)

• Geopolitical Context (1815): Central Europe followed the Napoleonic Wars with a fragmented structure. The area that became Germany was a series of different states within the German Confederation ($Bund$).

• The Holy Roman Empire Background: Prior to the Napoleonic Wars, the region was part of the medieval Holy Roman Empire, a semi-independent collection of states under the Austrian Emperor. This system collapsed in $1806$ due to Napoleon's invasion.

• The Confederation of the Rhine: Napoleon reorganized the west German states into this entity, introducing Enlightenment ideals emphasizing reason and the replacement of diverse local laws with a unified French legal system ($Code Napoléon$).

• Cultural Reaction and Romanticism: German thinkers reacted against French rationalism by emphasizing distinct culture and emotion.     * J.G. Herder: Influential writer who popularized the concept of $Volksgeist$ (‘spirit of the people’), arguing that a nation's identity is rooted in shared heritage and language.     * National Pride: Prussias reorganization and the decisive Battle of Leipzig ($1813$) became symbols of emerging national identity, later marked by a $91 ext{-metre}$ high monument on its centenary.

THE CONGRESS OF VIENNA AND THE METTERNICH SYSTEM

• Post-War Settlement (September 1814): A congress of European nations met in Vienna to establish new boundaries. Key participants were Austria, Prussia, Britain, and Russia; France attended without decision-making power.

• Ideological Conflict: Leaders were social and political conservatives anxious about liberalism and nationalism.

• Prince Klemens von Metternich (1773–1859):     * Role: Austrian foreign minister ($1809–1848$) and chancellor ($1821–1848$).     * Beliefs: Described ‘liberty’ and ‘equality’ as sources of evil. He viewed the Austrian Empire, with its $25 ext{ million}$ people and area of $647,000 ext{ km}^2$, as a fragile structure threatened by nationalism.     * The Metternich System: Aimed to maintain absolute monarchy. Methods included press censorship and a network of secret agents/spies. Troops were stationed away from their home regions to prevent nationalist uprisings.

• Nature of the Confederation (Bund):     * Consisted of $39$ states under Austrian control, ranging from large kingdoms (Bavaria, Saxony) to city-states (Hamburg).     * The Diet: A conference of ambassadors meeting in Frankfurt, always chaired by Austria. Austria held a veto over constitutional changes.     * Internal Failures: No common civil service or economic area; an attempt at a federal defense force failed in $1821$ due to command and funding disputes.

LIBERALISM, NATIONALISM, AND THE MIDDLE CLASS

• Societal Changes: Liberalism and nationalism were primarily driven by the educated middle class ($Besitzbürgertum$ and $Bildungsbürgertum$).     * Business Class: Concentration in Rhineland cities and ports like Hamburg; mostly merchants and small workshop owners.     * Education: University population doubled between $1817$ and $1831$.

• Liberal Objectives:     * Sought representative assemblies elected by property owners and constitutional monarchies.     * Desired guarantees for free speech and fair trials.     * Economic Liberalism: Advocated for $\text{laissez-faire}$ economics, removal of tariffs, and free competition.

• Nationalist Support: Limited to literate professionals and student associations ($Burschenschaften$).     * The majority of the population were peasants with local loyalties and little interest in abstract national unity.     * Religious divide existed: Southern/Western states were predominantly Catholic; Northern Prussia was largely Protestant.

CONSERVATIVE REPRESSION AND THE 1830s

• The Carlsbad Decrees (1819): Triggered by the murder of August von Kotzebue by a liberal student.     * Universities: Extraordinary commissioners supervised teaching; liberal professors were removed.     * Censorship: Central investigating commission in Mainz rooted out radical organizations.

• The 1830 Impact: A revolution in Paris replaced Charles X with Louis Philippe. This led to constitutions in Saxony, Hanover, Hesse-Cassel, and Brunswick.

• Hambach Festival (1832): A mass demonstration in Bavaria for national dignity and freedom.     * Consequences: Metternich introduced the Six Articles ($June 1832$) and Ten Articles ($July 1832$), banning political meetings and the wearing of student association colors.

• Göttingen Seven (1837): Seven professors (including the Grimm brothers) were dismissed for protesting the abolition of the Hanoverian constitution.

THE ZOLLVEREIN AND PRUSSIA'S ECONOMIC LEADERSHIP

• Economic Growth: By the late $1840s$, railway development stimulated coal and iron industries. 70 ext{%} of the population remained in agriculture.

• Trade Barriers: Internal customs hindered growth; products crossed numerous borders, each requiring taxes and paperwork.

• The Zollverein (1834): A Prussia-led customs union.     * Initially $18$ states, eventually comprising $25$ states with a population of $26 ext{ million}$.     * Mechanism: Abolished internal barriers; income divided by population size. Common weights, measures, and currency were adopted.

• Austrian Exclusion: Austria stayed out to protect domestic producers with high tariffs. This failure to integrate proved a long-term strategic mistake.

• Nationalist Debate:     * $Grossdeutschland$: Unity including Austria.     * $Kleindeutschland$: Unity excluding Austria, dominated by Prussia.

THE REVOLUTIONS OF 1848–49

• Social/Economic Causes:     * Bad harvests in $1846$ and $1847$.     * Population growth: Prussian population grew from $10.3 ext{ million}$ in $1820$ to $14.9 ext{ million}$ in $1840$ (Total Germany: $26.1 ext{ million}$ to $32.6 ext{ million}$).     * Recession in the textile industry ($1847$) and rising food prices led to urban unrest.

• The Outbreak (March 1848):     * Baden: Grand Duke Leopold granted reforms (free press, trial by jury).     * Bavaria: Ludwig I abdicated for Maximilian after disturbances involving Lola Montez.     * Vorparlament: Met in Frankfurt to prepare for a national assembly.

• Revolution in Prussia:     * Friedrich Wilhelm IV ($1795–1861$) faced street fighting in Berlin.     * The King attempted to calm the masses by wearing revolutionary colors and promising Prussia would be ‘merged in Germany.’

• The Frankfurt Parliament (May 1848 – June 1849):     * ‘Professors' Parliament’: Included lawyers ($200$), university professors ($49$), but only one peasant and four handicraft workers.     * Weaknesses: Slow decision-making; lacked an army; dependency on traditional rulers.     * Schleswig-Holstein Crisis: The parliament authorized the Prussian army to fight Denmark, but Prussia signed a truce ($August 1848$) without consulting the parliament.     * Failure: Friedrich Wilhelm IV rejected the imperial crown in $April 1849$, calling it a ‘crown of mud and wood.’

PRUSSIA'S RECOVERY AND THE 1850s

• The Humiliation of Olmütz (November 1850): Prussia's attempt at the Erfurt Union was blocked by Felix Schwarzenberg of Austria. Prussia was forced to abandon the union and return to the old Confederation.

• Crimean War (1854–56): Austria alienated Russia by not supporting it, weakening the Austro-Russian conservative alliance. Prussia remained neutral and on good terms with all.

• Manteuffel's Reforms: Minister-President Otto von Manteuffel ($1850–1858$) implemented social reforms (low-interest loans for peasants) to discourage radicalism while promoting private enterprise in coal and iron.

• Economic Indicators ($1850$ vs. $1870$):     * Prussia Railways: $5,586 ext{ km}$ to $18,876 ext{ km}$.     * Austria Railways: $1,579 ext{ km}$ to $9,589 ext{ km}$.     * Prussia Coal Output ($1850–1865$): $1,961,000 ext{ tonnes}$ to $8,526,000 ext{ tonnes}$.

THE RISE OF BISMARCK

• Constitutional Crisis (1862): Wilhelm I wanted to double the regular army and merge the $Landwehr$ (militia) into it. Liberals in the $Landtag$ refused to vote for the budget.

• Appointment: Otto von Bismarck was appointed Minister-President in $September 1862$ to resolve the crisis.

• Political Philosophy: Realist/Opportunist. Famed ‘Blood and Iron’ speech stated that great questions are decided by power, not majority resolutions.

• Methods: Governed without parliamentary consent, collected taxes illegally, and used press censorship.

THE WARS OF UNIFICATION

• War with Denmark (1864): Dispute over Schleswig-Holstein. Prussia and Austria joined forces. Denmark was defeated at Düppel. The Gastein Convention ($1865$) gave Schleswig to Prussia and Holstein to Austria.

• Austro-Prussian War (1866):     * Diplomatic isolation of Austria: Biarritz meeting with Napoleon III (French neutrality); alliance with Italy.     * Königgrätz (Sadowa): Decisive Prussian victory using the Dreyse needle gun (fires $7 ext{ shots/min}$ vs. Austria’s $2 ext{ shots/min}$) and superior rail mobilization.     * Treaty of Prague: Moderate terms for Austria to avoid future enmity; creation of the North German Confederation.

• Franco-Prussian War (1870–71):     * Ems Telegram: Bismarck edited a royal telegram to provoke France into declaring war.     * Prussian Advantages: Effective general staff under Helmuth von Moltke; Krupp steel breech-loading field guns.     * Sedan (Sept 1870): Napoleon III captured. Siege of Paris followed.     * Outcome: France ceded Alsace and northern Lorraine; paid $5 ext{ billion}$ francs in reparations.

THE GERMAN EMPIRE (1871)

• Proclamation: Wilhelm I proclaimed German Emperor ($Kaiser$) in the Hall of Mirrors at Versailles on $January 18, 1871$.

• Constitution:     * Federal structure ($Fürstenbund$) where princes kept some powers.     * $Bundesrat$ (Federal Council): Prussia held $17$ of $43$ votes (later $58$ total, with $14$ required for a veto).     * $Reichstag$ elected by universal male suffrage, but had no control over military spending (90 ext{%} of budget).     * Bismarck served as Imperial Chancellor, answering only to the Kaiser.

QUESTIONS & DISCUSSION

• Historical Source Utility: When assessing the image of delegates at the Congress of Vienna, historians consider the artist's perspective, the date of creation, and whether it records an event or expresses a political viewpoint.

• Abstract Ideas vs. Class: Discussion on how far liberalism and nationalism influenced actions suggests that interest in these concepts was heavily dependent on social class and education levels.

• Prussia vs. Austria Strengths: Table $3.3$ data shows Prussia had higher manufacturing labor percentage (28 ext{%} vs. 13.1 ext{%}) and Per capita GNP ($426$ vs. $305$ USD) by $1870$, proving its economic dominance over Austria.

• Source Comparison (Wilhelm I vs. Bismarck Memoirs): King Wilhelm I portrayed the $1870$ war as defensive (‘sword forced into our hand’), whereas Bismarck's later memoirs ($1898$) boast about the manipulative editing of the Ems Telegram to ensure France appeared as the aggressor.