IO Exam 3
Chapter 5 Role of I/O
- Help develop and implement performance management systems
- Performance management: a system of individual performance improvement that typically includes (1) objective goal setting, 2 continuous coaching and feedback, 3 performance appraisal, and 4 development planning
o Motivational system of individual improvement (DeNisis & Pritchard, 2006)
- Keypoints: 4 components are linked to companies goals and objectives and the system is implemented on a continuous cycle
- Den Hartog et al. 2004 – profitable business is more likely to reinvest in HR
- Coaching: one-on-one collaborative relationship in which an individual provides performance-related guidance to an employee
Uses of Performance Appraisal
- Performance appraisal: systematic review and evaluation of job performance
o Provision of performance feedback
o Most important processes in orgs
o Purposes:
§ Personnel decisions
· Firing, hiring, raises
§ Developmental purposes
· Strengths and weaknesses
§ Documentation
· Prevent lawsuits
- Badly designed appraisals can get the wrong person fired or could cause feelings of inequity
o Could lead to lawsuits
- A good appraisal:
o Well received by ratees
o Based on documented behavior
o Important performance criteria
o Inclusive of perspectives
o Forward-looking
- Research Questions pursued by experts
o 1 – What si the best format or rating scale for performance appraisals?
o 2 – To what extent do rater error and biases affect the appraisal process?
o 3 – How should raters be trained so they can avoid errors and biases?
o 4 – What major contextual variables affect appraisal process?
o 5 – How important is the organizational context or culture in the appraisal process?
o 6 – What factors affect how ratees and raters react to performance appraisal?
Sources of Performance Ratings
- Traditionally – supervisors conducted performance appraisals
o Top-down approach
- Multisource feedback (360)
o A method of performance appraisal in which multiple raters at various levels of the organization evaluate a target employee and the employee is provided w feedback from the sources
§ Involved multiple raters at various levels within the org
o Hoffman et al., 2010 says these systems are increasingly important
§ Big companies use them
- Basic Assumptions
o Participants are happier bc they are involved
o Multiple raters from different levels in the org rating the same employee, overcomes bias
o Multiple raters bring with them for more additional ratings
- Upward appraisal ratings: ratings provided by individuals whose status, in an organizational hierarchy sense, is below the ratee’s
- Semeijn et al. 2014
o Showed different ratings and how their perspective differ and how they differ in predicting managerial effectiveness
o Levy & Willaims. 2004 – extent of agreement among rating sources
- Influx of educators and health professionals
o Stevens et al., 2018
o Nurudeen et al., 2015
§ High percentages of surgeons report that feedback was accurate and they changed behavior
· Self rating, department heads, trainees
§ 75% of participants found the process valuable
o App called Healthcare Supervision Logbook
§ Gray et al., 2015
§ Provide feedback for being a doctor by doctors
- Goldring et al., 2015 – principals and feedback
§ Cognitive dissonance when teacher ratings were low
§ Principals are motivated to correct this
- Recommendations for Implementing
o 1 – be honest about how ratings will be used
o 2 – help employees deal with ratings
o 3 – avoid presenting too much information (DeNisi & Kluger, 2000)
Changes in Telework
- Golden et al., 2009 – telework ahs grown rapidly
- Supervisors must rely on indirect sources of performance information.
- Golden et al., 2009 – Supervisors rely more on direct performance invitations
- Telework: working arrangements in which employees enjoy flexibility in work hours/ location
- Golden & Gajendran, 2014
o Telecommuting has positive effect on performance
o Small strength effect, never negative
- Gajendran et al., 2015
o 323 supervisor-subordinate pairs
o Telecommuting - positively related with task performance and contextual
o Effect strengthened when relationship between subordinate and supervisor was good
o Giovanis, 2018 – Increased telework = more productivity
Rating Formats
- Graphic Rating Scales
o Oldest format used
o Scales consisting of a number of traits or behaviors
o Provide ease in development and use
- Behaviorally Enriched rating Scale
o BARS (Smith & Kendall, 1963)
o Best known for: painstaking process of development
o Bernardin & Beatty, 1984 -> 5 Step Plan
§ 1 – group of participants identify dimensions required for a job
§ 2 – participants generate a series of behavioral examples
§ 3 – retranslation: make sure that the examples generated are unambiguously associated with that dimension
§ 4 – rates remaining behavioral example on effectiveness
§ 5 – items that represent performance levels on each dimension are chosen from acceptable items
o Critical indecent: example of job performance used in behaviorally anchored rating scales or job-analytic approaches
§ Rate high, medium, or low effectiveness
- Checklists
o Popular
o Raters are asked to read behavioral statements and check off each behavior an employee exhibits
o Weighted checklist
§ Series of items that have been weighted as to importance or effectiveness
o Items should be scrambled not numerical
o Raters can't see the scale score column
o Forced-choice checklists
§ Not as frequent as weighted
§ Raters asked to choose two items from a group of four that best describe the employee
§ All appear good but two are the best
§ Purpose: reduce bias or distortion from raters
o Borman created CARS to make raters feel better
§ Computerized adaptive rating scale
§ Provides discriminability
§ Two forced choices, one slightly more desirable
- Employee Comparison
o Involves evaluation of ratees with respect to how they compare to toher employees
o Rank-ordering
§ Employees ranked from best to worst
§ Good for promotions and raises
o Paired comparisons
§ Comparison of each employee to another (in pairs)
§ Hard when big company with lots of employees
§ N(N-1)/2 calculate total number of comparisons
o Forced-distribution
§ Raters are instructed to “force” a designated proportions of employees into 5-7 categories
§ Like grading on a curve
§ Often into thirds
§ Good for determining raises, not popular amongst employees
§ Super popular in the 2000s
o Adverse Impact
§ Public lawsuits about forced distribution created controversy regarding the extent to which underrepresented groups where ranked in the low category resulting in adverse impact
· Giumetti et al. 2015
- Contemporary trends in rating formats
o Most testing is quantitative but performance appraisal often includes narrative comments
o Gillespie et al. 2006
§ Proposes framework for the use of narrative comments in the performance appraisal process
§ Identifies characteristics like the specificity of comments
o Speer 2018
§ Used text mining to derive meaning from narrative comments
§ Explain unique variance in performance rating
§ Predict the likelihood that employees would turn over in the next year
o Feedforward Interviews (FFI)
§ Kluger & Nir, 2010
· Proposed to replace the traditional performance appraisal interview and to facilitate positive change by focusing on employees strengths rather than weaknesses
· Very little empirical research
- Evaluation of various alternative methods
o Personality and format may impact performance ratings
§ Yun et al. 2005
o How providing ratings via email impacts the process
§ Kurtzberg et al. 2005
o Effectiveness of BARS in team adaptation
§ Georganta & Brodbeck, 2018
o No single format is superior
Rating Errors
- Cognitive processes
o Two examples of potential error or bias
§ Step 1: observation of employee behavior
· Often done well
· Some bosses do not see subordinates often making this hard
§ Step 2: Encoding
· Behavior must be cognitively packaged so rater can store it
§ Step 3: Storing
· Behavior must be stored in long-term memory
§ Step 4: Retrieval
· During appraisal review, stored info must be retrieved from memory
· Often, raters cannot retrieve important information
§ Step 5: Integration
· Rater must integrate all information to reach a final rating
o Halo
§ Halo results from a raters tendency to use their global evaluation of a ratee in making dimension-specific ratings or a raters unwillingness to discriminate between independent dimensions of a ratee’s performance
§ Saal et al. 1980
§ Positive or negative
§ Old research assumed all halos were errors, but some people can be competent across all dimensions
· True halo: halo that results from accurate intercorrelations among performance dimensions rather than from rating error
§ Thomas et al. 2009
· Curvilinear relationship between halo and accuracy
o Performance is distributed normally
o Rating errors can be leniency, central tendency, severity
§ Distributional errors: rating errors that result from a mismatch between actual and rating distributions and expected rating distributions
- Leniency
o The rating error that results when 1 the means of ones ratings across ratees is higher than the mean of all ratees across all raters or 2 the mean of one’s ratings is higher than the midpoint of the scale
o Bernardin et al 2009
§ If categorized as “agreeable” – found more lenient than if “conscientious”
- Central Tendency
o The tendency to use only the midpoint of the scale in rating one’s employees
o Comes from lazy raters or uninformed
- Severity
o The tendency to use only the low end of the scale, give consistently lower ratings to one’s employees than other raters
o Less frequent than leniency and central tendency
- Other Errors
o Recency error: raters heavily weight their most recent interactions ith or observations of the ratee
§ Disregard past performance and focus on the last month or however long
o First impression error: opposite of recency; raters pay an inordinate amount of attention to initial experiences with a ratee
§ How hard working an employee was when first hired
§ How likeable when hired
o Similar-to-me error: raters tend to give more favorable ratings to ratees who are like themselves
Rater considerations
- Rater training
o Rater Error Training: a type of training developed to reduce rater errors by focusing on describing errors like halo to raters and showing raters how to avoid making such errors
o Spool, 1978
o Accuracy sometimes decreases too
- Frame-of-Reference training: a type of training designed to enhance raters observational and categorization skills so that all raters share a common view and understanding of performance levels to improve rater accuracy
o Bernardin, 1981
o Goal is to calibrate raters
o Raters provided with description of the dimensions and rating scales
- Sulsky & Day, 1994 shows FOR training improves appraisal accuracy and is recognized as the most effective approach
- Behavioral Observation Training (BOT)
o Teaches raters how to watch for certain behaviors and avoid behavioral observation errors
- Rater Goals and Accountability
o Mero & Motowidlo 1995 demonstrated that raters who were held accountable to various goals or objectives provided ratings consistent with those goals
o Wong & Kwong 2007 found a clear relationship between rater goals and rating patterns
Social-Psych Context
- Context-related topics: accuracy, sub-sup relationship, org politics, trust, multiple feedback (Levy, 2018)
- Qualitative Criteria – Bernardin & Beatty, 1984
- Reaction Criteria – Cawley et al, 1998
- Research focused on how ratees respond to appraisal system, it can influence their scores
o Murphy & Cleveland; Hedge & Borman
- Sub-sup relationship influencing how ratees respond to system
o Dobbins et al. 1990
o Bank tellers with good relationship were more satisfied w the system
o Tata 2002
o Less anger and more justice when good relationship
- Goals-feedback-reaction-subsequent-goals path
o Ilies et al 2010
o Emotional reactions to feedback play a role
- Kruger & Dunning 1999
o Unskilled people so unskilled they don’t know how unskilled they are
§ False confidence
o Plays into not being receptive to feedback
o Overestimate emotional intelligence
- Recommendations to Improve Feedback
o Levy et al. 2018
o Regular feedback sessions, invest in sub-sup relationships, rethink ratings, promote fairness
- Leader-member exchange (LMX) theory- emphasizes the idea that supervisors have different types of relationships with different subordinates
o Engle & Lord 1997
o .34 correlation from Martin et al. 2016
o Trust and empowerment mediate the relationship
o Frequency of communication interacts
o Park 2017
§ LMX quality is proposed to result in more rater accountability due to high levels of interaction, feedback discussions, and info-sharing
- Org Politics are “deliberate attempts by individuals to enhance or protect their self-interest when conflicting courses of action are possible”
o Longenecker (multiple studies)
o Impression management strategies to bring about favorable appraisals
o Control behavior
- Rosen Studies
o Ruminators – individuals who persist in negative thinking and feelings related to stressors that they experience
§ Politics affect them more negatively than others
o Org politics lead to stress and anxiety
- Trust and Justice – the extent to which raters believe that fair and accurate appraisals have been or will be made in their organization
o Trust in the appraisal Process Survey (TAPS)
§ Measure raters perceptions of the rating behavior of other raters in their department
§ Bernardin
o Villanova
§ Comfortability of raters
§ Performance Appraisal Discomfort Scale (PADS)
§ Raters can be trained to be more comfortable
o Implicit person theory (IPT) – extent to which an individual believes that people can chance can impact performance appraisal
o Justice perceptions can lead to OCB
- Participation (Cawley 1998)
o Strong positive relationship between participation and performance appraisal reactions
§ Satisfaction, motivation, belief of fairness, belief of usefulness
Providing Performance Feedback
- Outcomes are behavior changes, better performance, increased self-awareness, increased confidence
o Levy, London, Smither, Linderbaum
- Continuous employee development: cyclical process in which employees are motivated to plan for and engage in actions or behaviors that benefit their future employability on a repetitive or ongoing basis
- Social support is a key determinant
- London & Smither 2002 Feedback Loop
o Attend to feedback, process feedback, use the feedback
- Feedback intervention theory
o Feedback is most effective when targeted at task rather than individual
- Feedback environment – proposed to embody the culture while also specifically representing on orgs climate and attitude toward feedback
o Linked to satisfaction and motivation to use feedback
- Feedback orientation – individuals overall receptivity to feedback
o Individual-difference side
o Related to learning goal orientation
Legal Issues
- Illegal to discriminate in performance appraisals based on non-performance related factors
- Austin et al. 1995
o 1. Documented job analysis
o 2. Communicate standards in writing
o 3. Use dimensions not overall rating
o 4. Objective and subjective criteria based on behavior not personality
o 5. Appeal mechanism
o 6. Multiple raters
o 7. Document everything
o 8. Train raters
- Case review showed that most court decisions for performance appraisal were about AGE then RACE then GENDER
- Due process metaphor – adequate notice, fair hearing, and judgments based on evidence
- Wearable tech -> offer incentives for healthy behaviors (steps competitions)
o U London and Rackspace
§ Wearables benefit productivity an well-being at work
o Three kinds of analysis (physiolytics)
§ Quantifications of movements, working with info efficiently, analyzing personal “big data”
Chapter 7 Selection Decisions and Personnel Law
Review
- Selection battery – set of predictors, tests, used to make employee hiring decisions
- r – index of the relationship between predictor and a criterion
- r^2 – provides information about the variance in the criterion accounted for by the predictor
- want as little correlation among predictors as possible
Recruitment
- recruitment – the process of encouraging potentially qualified applicants to seek employment with a particular company
- Ployhart, 2006 – more difficult to recruit than select
o Person-environment fit – the agreement or match between an individuals KSAOs and values and the demands of a job and characteristics of an organization
- Internet
o General job boards – broad appeal
o Organizations own employment websites – attract recruits for their jobs
o Cober and Colleagues study what attracts recruits to companies, specifically website design
o Cybervetting – use of social media as part of background investigation used to make employee selection decisions
§ Companies use social media to stalk employees
§ Legal and ethical debates
§ 90% employers seek out pictures of individual when reviewing
o Informal contact can lead to discrimination
Selection – Test Validation
- Predictive validation - investigate how effective our predictors are at forecasting on the job performance of applicants (prior to hiring)
o 1. Gather predictor data on all applicants
o 2. Hire some applicants to fill open positions
o 3. Gather performance data to serve as criteria for validation study
o 4. Compute validity coefficient between predictor score and criterion score
o Difficult to conduct
- Concurrent validation
o 1. Collect data on predictors and criteria from incumbent employees
o 2. Compute validity coefficient
- Concurrent differs from predictive in two ways:
o Incumbents are the individuals not applicants
o Predictors and criteria at same time instead of before and after
- Cross-Validation
o Validity shrinkage – statistical phenomenon reflecting the likelihood that a given selection battery will demonstrate lower validity when employed with a different sample
Validity Generalization
- A statistical approach used to demonstrate that test validities do not vary across situations
- Situational specificity – the belief that test validities are specific to particular situations
- Synthetical validity – validity that is inferred based on links between job components and KSAOs
Practical Approaches to Selection
- Multiple cutoff approach – a noncompensatory model of employee selection in which “passing score” are set on each predictor
o Noncompensatory aspect is the disadvantage if predictors are not important
- Multiple hurdle approach – a rendition of multiple cutoff, where predictors are administered in a predetermined order and applicants are measured on the next predictor only if they scored above the cutoff on the previous predictor
- Multiple regression – statistical technique that allows us to estimate how well a series of predictors forecasts a performance criterion
o Regression formula: Y – b0 + b1x1 ….
Usefulness
- Utility – the degree to which a selection battery is useful and cost efficient
- Decision Accuracy
o Quadrant 1: hits (true positives) – number of applicants hired on the basis of selection system that succeeded
o Quadrant 2; correct rejections (trues negs) – number of applicants who were not hired and would have been bad
o Quadrant 3: false alarms (false pos) – applicants hired but ineffective
o Quadrant 4: misses (false negs) – applicants not hired who would have succeeded
o FORMULA – Q1/(Q1 + Q3)
o OVERALL FORMULA – (Q1+Q2)/(Q1 + Q2 + Q3 + Q4)
- Validity
- Base Rate
o Base rate – the percentage of current employees who are successful on the job
o Provides baseline against which new selection battery can be compared
- Selection Ratio
o Selection ratio – the number of job opening divided by the number of applicants
o Smaller selection ratio = greater potential of selection battery
- Cost
o Cost factors into utility
o Military invests in selection a lot
- Taylor-Russel Tables
o Table developed to allow us to estimate the improvement in the workforce that will result from new selection battery
Legal Issues
- “white jobs” until 1960s
- Civil rights Act of 1964 – led to 1978 Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC)
- “Uniform Guidelines on Employee Selection Procedures by EEOC
o Principles for the Validation and Sue of Personnel Selection Procedures (SIOP)
Employment at will
- Employment at-will – a common law doctrine stating that employers and employees have the right to initiate and terminate the employment relationship at any time, for any reason or for no reason
- Exceptions are growing and becoming more common
Adverse Impact
- Adverse impact – most accepted operationalization of discrimination, (80% rule). If selection rate for that group is less than 80% of selection rate for the group with the highest selection rate
- Arguing In Court
o Plaintiff (employee) must demonstrate prima facia
§ Show adverse impact using 80% rule or smth else
o Defendant (company) must argue stats are incomplete or not accurate
§ Unless they do not deny adverse impact
§ If so, they must demonstrate it is job-related selection
§ Business necessity defense
Affirmative Action
- Affirmative action – a practice employed in many orgs to increase the number of minorities or protected class members in targeted jobs
- Affirmative action plans (AAPs) are employed, not a quota system
o Should not result in unqualified minorities hired
o May result in two equally qualified candidates, but minority gets the job
- Court Cases
o Gratz v Bollinger 2003
§ White won, bc race was deciding factor
o Grutter v Bollinger 2003
§ White lost bc law school diversity is important and race not deciding factor
o Petit v Chicago 2003
§ Need for diversity in police force
§ Agreed w Grutter
o Parents v Seattle 2007
§ Split court
§ Agreed w Grutter that diversity was important
§ Agreed w Gratz that basing on race alone is illegal
o Fisher v UTexas 2011
§ Fisher was rejected
§ The AAP was holistic and not solely based on race
Equal Pay
- Equal pay act 1963 – made it illegal to provide unequal pay and benefits to men and women holding equal jobs
- Ledbetter v Goodyear
o Court ruled statue of limitations began at first paycheck, therefore even though she didn’t know her pay was unfair they could not do anything
o Ledbetter Fair Pay Act created to ensure statue of limitations does not run out
§ Each paycheck restarts timeline
Civil Rights Act
- Griggs v Duke Power 1971
o Even if company did not mean to discriminate, if adverse impact exists, the company must demonstrate selection battery was job related
o Lost bc no validation study had ever been done
- Ricci v DeStefano 2009
o Just because there is adverse impact, employers cannot remove test results
- Disparate impact cases – cases involving employment procedures that apparently unintentionally discriminate against or unfairly affect a minority group
- Disparate treatment cases – cases involving discrimination that results from intentional differential treatment or behavior
- Bona fide occupational qualification (BFOQ)
o A characteristic, such as gender or religion, that is required or necessary to effectively do the job
o Needs pleasant environment
Meritor Sabing Banks v Vinson 1986
- Established hostile work environment as verbal or physical behavior that creates an intimidating, hostile, or offensive work environment that interferes with performance
- Type of sexual harassment
LGBTQ
- Only protected in 22 states and DC
- Fortune 500 companies protect them
Age Discrimination
- EEOC v UTexas 1983
o Court allowed age as a BFOQ exception
o Company had age limit of 45 for police officers due to danger
o Commercial airlines uphold age 60, may have been raised recently
- Cleverly v Western Electric 1979
o Fired 6 months before he got pension
o He proved that (1) he is 40yrs or older, (2) satisfactory worker, (3) discharged despite work, (4) replaced by younger employee
Disabilities
- Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA)
o George Bush 1990 prohibits discrimination against qualified candidates with disabilities in employment decisions
- Essential functions – tasks that are significant and meaningful aspects of the job
- Reasonable accommodations – changes or exceptions made by an employer that allow qualified disabled individuals to successfully do a job
- Undue hardship – an accommodation for the disabled that would result in difficulty or expense given the employers size and financial resources
- Martin v PGA Tour 1998
o Martin could not walk
o Sued PGA after they refused his request for accommodation, using golf cart
o PGA said it was an advantage
o Court completely disagreed, Martin won
- ADA Amendments Act 2009 – clarified eligibility requirements
Family and Medical Leave Act
- Clinton in 1993
o Job-protected, unpaid, leave for 12 weeks based on family issues
§ Typically giving birth
o Employee has the right to return to the same position or equivalent position
- Cali added 6 weeks FML each year, if needed
- Unpaid part causes issues
Illegal to discriminate for any of the following:
- Hiring and firing’
- Compensation, assignment, classification
- Transfer, promotion, layoff, recall
- Job ads
- Recruitment
- Testing
- Use of company facilities
- Training
- Fringe benefits
- Pay, retirement plans, disability leave
Chapter 8 Training and Development
- 90% of Fortune 500 companies invest in formal training
- Average of 34 hours per year
- Training – the formal procedures that a company utilizes to facilitate learning so that the resultant behavior contributes to the attainment of the company's goals and objectives
o McGehee & Thayer, 1961
Assessing Training Needs
- Competency-based training – identify competencies they want all employees to have and then develop programs around them
- Virtual reality (Riason et al 2017)
Organizational Analysis
- Should consider culture of the org
- Org analysis is done to determine the orgs short and long term goals to the organizations accomplishments
Task Analysis
- Examines the task requirements for successful conduct of the job specifying what new employees will be doing
- Human capital – the education, training, and experiences of individual employees that provide value to organizations
Person Analysis
- Very specific – focuses on employees who actually need training
Demographic Analysis
- Traditionally – training needs assessment entailed analyses at org, task, and person levels
- Now – analysis should take into account the demographic of the org
o Latham, 1998
Learning Context
- Learning organizations – companies in which there is organization wide concern with and value of knowledge acquisition and continuous learning
- Continuous learning – direct and long-term effort to learn; stems from an intense desire to acquire knowledge and improve results and from participation in activities that facilitate learning
o Peter Senge 2006
§ Personal vision, openness to feedback, making adjustments
Instructional Design
- Instructional design – a set of events that facilitate training through their impact on trainees
o 1) determine what is to be learned
o 2) scheme
o 3) planned evaluation
Principles of Learning
- Learning- the relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs as a result of experience or practice
- Active learning – resources and activities, practice, problem solving, communication, and verbal interactions, intended to improve analysis and synthesis of information
- Learning theory – built on the principle that learning is facilitated if the learner is active during the learning period
- Size of the unit to be learned
o Whole versus part learning = whether training should be structured ina way to present the whole task or only part of the task in a given training session
o Goldstein & Ford, 2002
o Using learning theory, more effective for whole task when highly organized
o Distributed practice – training in which the practice is divided into segments, usually with rest periods
o Massed practice – training in which all practice takes place at one time, no breaks
- Meaningfulness of material
o 1) trainer should present overview of training material
o 2) material should be presented so trainees can understand
o 3) sequencing of material is important
- Practice and Overwhelming
o Overlearning – the process of giving trainees continued t practice even after they master the behavior, resulting in higher levels of learning
- Feedback
o Knowledge of results (KOR) – feedback
§ 1 – provides info that allows trainees to make adjustments to their behvaior
§ 2 – makes learning process more interesting and increases motivation
§ 3 – leads to goal setting for improved performance
§ Wexley & Latham, 2002
o Principles on how feedback should be delivered
§ 1 – given immediately after behavior
§ 2 – frequent feedbacks tends to result in best performance
§ 3 – positive and negative feedback have value when delivered sensitively
Individual Differences
- Readiness – possessing background characteristic and level of interest necessary to make elarning possible
- Self-efficacy – indviduals belief in their ability to be successful in training
- Motivation to learn
Characteristics of Trainer
- Wexley and Latham suggest that
o effective trainers establish specific objectives and communicate them clearly to trainees
o trainers should have a solid understanding of how people learn
o communication skills are extremelt important
o trainers must realize different trainees mean different treatments and styles
Transfer of training
- transfer of training – the extent to which the material, skills, or procedures learned in training are taken back to the job and used by the employee daily
- positive transfer – organization’s goal, what is learned in training is applied to the job
- Goldstein & Ford, 2002
o Summary of literature in training area and guidelines on how to increase likelihood of positive transfer
o Identical elements theory - training environment should resemble real-life environment as closely as possible
o Provide employees with adequate active practice
o Trainers provide otj training focused on helping employees continue learned behaviors
- Baldwin & Ford, 1988
o Transfer of training proposed a model of transfer process emphasizing the importance of social support
o Transfer climate – consists of peer and supervisory support for transfer
Training Delivery
General Approaches
- Pretraining interventions are aimed at preparing employees for training
- Lecturing
o Oldest and most established method
o Economical, fast
o Effectiveness varies greatly, not good for interpersonal skills or problem-solving
- OTJ training
o Most widely used technique in organizations
o New employee learns by watching old employee
- Self Directed Techniques
o Allow trainees to work at their own pace and remedy identified weaknesses
o Programmed instruction (PI) – presents information to the learned while using learning principles to reward and motivate
§ most established
o Computer Assisted Instruction (CAI) – trainees interact with a computer, otherwise same as PI
§ Fast learners can go quick and slow can take their time
- Virtual Training
o Physical fidelity – the extent to which the operation of equipment in training mimics that in the real world
o Psychological fidelity – the extent to which the essential behavioral processes needed for success otj are also necessary for success in training sim
o Bruppacher 2010
§ Sim training
§