Communism in Russia and the Rise of the Soviet Union

Theory and Origins of Communism

Developed by the German philosopher Karl Marx, communism focuses on the struggle between the capitalist class and the proletariats. Derived from the French word 'commune', it promotes the removal of social inequalities. Key features include the absence of private ownership, centralized government control of the economy, prioritisation of the common good, and state-provided free housing, healthcare, and education.

Pre-Revolutionary Russia

In the early 1900s, Russia was ruled by Tsar Nicholas II as an absolute despot. The population of 175 million consisted of 90% peasantry and 10% nobility. Most peasants relied on wealthy landowners within a feudal system. Technologically behind Europe, the country suffered from frequent famines, slow industrial growth, and widespread illiteracy.

Revolutionary Movements

Education led to the rise of reformers, despite government suppression through execution or exile:

  • Social Revolutionaries: Supported by peasants; advocated for land redistribution.

  • Social Democrats: Divided into the moderate "Mensheviks" and the radical "Bolsheviks" (led by Trotsky and Lenin), who favored immediate action.

The 1905 Revolution

In 1905, 200,000 workers marched to the Winter Palace in St Petersburg to petition for basic human rights. Soldiers opened fire, causing the Bloody Sunday massacre. This triggered mass strikes and riots. Following this, workers formed the first soviet (council) led by Leon Trotsky, and the Tsar established the Duma (parliament), which ultimately lacked real power.

Questions & Discussion

Comment on the response of the Russian soldiers to the 1905 march led by Father Gapon. Russian soldiers opened fire on the crowd, killing hundreds. This violent response showed that the Tsarist government was unwilling to hear the demands of the people. Consequently, peaceful loyalty turned into revolutionary anger as the public lost faith in the Tsar.

Comment on the limitations of Source B regarding the reasons for the abdication of Tsar Nicholas II. The source is clearly biased, portraying Nicholas II as a selfless leader and shifting blame onto the people, which makes it unreliable for explaining his actual failures. It is also vague, focusing on the Tsar's personal emotions rather than factual causes like WWI, economic collapse, or food shortages.

The February 1917 Revolution

Strained by World War I, the Russian economy collapsed due to high inflation and food shortages. In February 1917, mass demonstrations in Petrograd led the Tsar's soldiers to join the protestors. Tsar Nicholas II was forced to abdicate, and a Provisional Government was established. This government failed because it continued the war and did not address land redistribution.

The October 1917 Revolution

Lenin returned from exile, promoting the slogans "Peace, bread, land" and "All Power to the Soviets." On 25 October 1917, the Bolsheviks conducted a coup d'état, seizing key areas in Petrograd and storming the Winter Palace. The Provisional Government surrendered, and Lenin announced the "Soviet of People’s Commissars" as the new government.

Marxism-Leninism and Early Rule

While Marxism envisioned the working class overthrowing capitalism themselves, Lenin argued for a strong, leading party (the vanguard) to maintain strict control. Once in power, the Bolsheviks became the Communist Party, established a totalitarian state, banned opposition, and used secret police to enforce policy. Reforms included a peace treaty with Germany, land confiscation, and the nationalization of all resources.

The Russian Civil War (1918–1921)

The Red Army (Bolsheviks) fought the White Russians (liberals and landowners supported by Britain, France, USA, and Japan). Under the leadership of Trotsky and the economic policy of War Communism, the Red Army emerged victorious, though the conflict cost millions of lives.

Economic Transitions: War Communism and NEP

War Communism: The state seized total control of the economy, requisitioning grain from peasants. While it won the war, it caused production levels to plummet and led to widespread famine.

New Economic Policy (NEP): Introduced by Lenin as a "compromise with capitalism" to save the revolution. It allowed for limited free enterprise, letting farmers sell surplus grain after paying a tax. This led to the rise of "Kulaks" (wealthy farmers) and "NEP-men" (wealthy businessmen), successfully restoring the economy by 1922.

The Rule of Joseph Stalin

After Lenin's death in 1924, Joseph Stalin won a power struggle against Trotsky. Stalinism transformed the USSR into a totalitarian state through a cult of personality and terror.

  • Collectivisation: Small farms were merged into large state-run farms. Resistance from Kulaks led to crop burning, resulting in mass starvation and executions.

  • Industrialisation: A series of "Five Year Plans" focused on heavy industry, coal, and steel. By 1953, the USSR became an industrial giant, though at the cost of 20 million deaths by 1939 due to purges, forced labor camps (gulags), and famine.