Chapter 9 Sustaining Biodiversity: Saving Species and Ecosystem Services

Exploring Environmental Science for AP® 1st Edition Chapter 9: Sustaining Biodiversity: Saving Species and Ecosystem Services

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Core Case Study: Where Have All the Honeybees Gone?

• Role of Bees in Pollination:
  • Bees are vital for pollination, particularly the European honeybee (Apis mellifera).
  • They pollinate over 70% of vegetable and fruit crops.
  • Commercial beekeepers transport hives to various farms for efficient pollination.
• Colony Collapse Disorder (CCD):
  • A phenomenon where entire colonies of bees abandon their hive.
  • CCD affected between 23% and 43% of European honeybees in the U.S. from 2008 to 2015.

9.1 What Role Do Humans Play in the Loss of Species and Ecosystem Services?

• Extinction Rates:
  • Species extinction is occurring at a rate at least 1,000 times faster than historical rates.
  • By the end of the current century, this rate may reach 10,000 times the natural rate.
• Biological Extinction:
  • Defined as the point when a species can no longer be found anywhere on Earth.

Extinctions Are Natural but Sometimes They Increase Sharply (1 of 3)

• Natural Extinction:
  • Extinction is a normal biological process.
  • The background extinction rate is approximately 1 species per year for every 1 million species.
• Mass Extinction:
  • Defined as the rapid extinction of a large number of species within a relatively short geological timeframe.
  • Historically caused by global environmental changes.

Extinctions Are Natural but Sometimes They Increase Sharply (2 of 3)

• Opportunities After Extinction:
  • Mass extinction events can allow other species to occupy vacant ecological niches.
• Human Impact on Habitats:
  • Destruction and degradation of habitats leading to increased resource consumption and a larger ecological footprint.
  • Current extinction rates are significantly higher than the natural background rates, estimated at 1,000 times greater.

Extinctions Are Natural but Sometimes They Increase Sharply (3 of 3)

• Future Trends:
  • Extinction rates and threats to ecosystem services are projected to increase sharply in the next 50 to 100 years due to harmful human activities.
  • A major loss of species will severely impact ecosystem services crucial for human survival.
  • Biologically diverse environments are being systematically destroyed or fragmented.

Science Focus 9.1: Estimating Extinction Rates

• Challenges in Estimation:
  • Natural extinction is a lengthy process, making documentation of species extinction difficult.
  • Currently, only about 2 million species have been identified out of an estimated 7 to 10 million species on Earth.
  • Limited ecological role knowledge of most identified species hinder effective extinction estimation.
• Research Approach:
  • Observing how loss of habitat area influences extinction rates.

Endangered and Threatened Species Are Ecological Smoke Alarms (1 of 3)

• Definitions:
  • Endangered Species: Species with so few individuals left that it may soon become extinct.
  • Threatened Species: Species that still survive in sufficient numbers but are experiencing declining populations and may soon become endangered.
  • Certain characteristics of species make them more vulnerable to extinction.

9.2 Why Should We Try to Sustain Wild Species and the Ecosystem Services They Provide?

• Reasons for Sustainability:
  • Wild species provide vital ecosystem services and economic benefits.
  • Recovery from large-scale extinctions can take millions of years.
  • Many people advocate for species' rights to exist, irrespective of their utility to humans.

Species Are a Vital Part of the Earth’s Natural Capital (1 of 5)

• Orangutans Case:
  • Estimate of only about 61,000 orangutans remaining in the wild.
  • Their habitat is rapidly being cleared for palm oil production.
  • Illegal smuggling and sale exacerbate decline.
  • They have the lowest birth rate among animals.
  • Without urgent protective measures, orangutans could face extinction within two decades.

Species Are a Vital Part of the Earth’s Natural Capital (2 of 5)

Species Are a Vital Part of the Earth’s Natural Capital (3 of 5)

• Ecosystem Services Provided by Species:
  • Include pollination, pest control, and oxygen production.
  • Many plants and animals contribute economically, including providing medicinal drugs.
  • Extinction impedes speciation processes, potentially diminishing future biodiversity.
  • Ethical considerations hold that species possess an intrinsic right to exist.
  • Questions arise regarding which species are prioritized for protection.

Species Are a Vital Part of the Earth’s Natural Capital (4 of 5)

Species Are a Vital Part of the Earth’s Natural Capital (5 of 5)

9.3 How Do Humans Accelerate Species Extinction and Degradation of Ecosystem Services?

• Greatest Threats to Species (HIPPCO acronym):
  • Habitat destruction, degradation, or fragmentation.
  • Invasive (non-native) species.
  • Growth of human population and resource use.
  • Pollution.
  • Climate change.
  • Overexploitation of species.

Habitat Destruction and Fragmentation (1 of 3)

• Habitat Fragmentation:
  • Occurs when large, intact habitats are divided into smaller, isolated patches due to human activities (e.g., roads, logging, agriculture, urban development).
  • These barriers limit the ability of species to disperse and colonize new areas and hinder the location of food and mates.

Habitat Destruction and Fragmentation (2 of 3)

Habitat Destruction and Fragmentation (3 of 3)

Invasive Species (1 of 2)

• Overview:
  • While some species introductions can be beneficial, non-native species may lack natural predators, competitors, or harmful organisms.
  • Such species can outcompete native species, causing harm to local ecosystems and are thus labeled as invasive.

Invasive Species (2 of 2)

Case Study: The Kudzu Vine and Kudzu Bugs (1 of 2)

• Kudzu Vine Background:
  • Imported from Japan in the 1930s to help control soil erosion.
  • Rapid spreading can take over land, making it very difficult to manage.
  • Persistent common fungus can kill kudzu vines, necessitating investigation of possible harmful side effects.
  • Potential benefits of kudzu include medicinal and nutritional uses, and it has potential applications in paper and biofuel production.

Case Study: The Kudzu Vine and Kudzu Bugs (2 of 2)

Some Accidentally Introduced Species Can Disrupt Ecosystems (1 of 2)

• Example Species:
  • Burmese python, African python, and boa constrictor were introduced into the Florida Everglades as pets and released into the wild.
  • These introductions alter food webs and affect ecosystem services through predation.

Some Accidentally Introduced Species Can Disrupt Ecosystems (2 of 2)

Controlling Invasive Species (1 of 2)

• Control Strategies:
  • Research programs to identify invasive species.
  • Tracking invasive species using ground surveys and satellite observations.
  • Establishing international treaties to ban species transfer between countries.
  • Public education campaigns against releasing exotic pets and plants into the wild.

Controlling Invasive Species (2 of 2)

• Prevention Strategies:
  • Emphasis on prevention is considered the most effective strategy to mitigate threats from invasive species.

Population Growth, High Rates of Resource Use, Pollution, and Climate Change (1 of 2)

• Human Factors:
  • Human population growth and rising resource usage per capita lead to wildlife habitat degradation.
  • Pollution directly causes bioaccumulation in organisms and can lead to biomagnification through the food web.
  • Climate change is predicted to accelerate species extinctions, contributing to significant biodiversity loss and compromising ecosystem services.

Population Growth, High Rates of Resource Use, Pollution, and Climate Change (2 of 2)

Science Focus 9.2: Honeybee Losses: A Search for Causes

• Honeybee Population Decline:
  • The European honeybee population has halved over the last 50 years.
  • Possible causes for this significant decline include:
  • Parasites.
  • Viruses.
  • Use of pesticides.
  • Stress from transportation and overwork.
  • Poor nutrition due to reliance on pollinating a limited number of crops.

Illegal Killing, Capturing, and Selling of Wild Species (1 of 2)

• Poaching and Smuggling:
  • Involves organized crime motivated by substantial profit margins from illegal wildlife trade.
  • Species at risk include elephants and rhinos (for their tusks and horns) and tigers (for their skins and body parts).
• Pet Trade Impact:
  • Represents threats to exotic birds, reptiles, amphibians, and tropical fish.

Illegal Killing, Capturing, and Selling of Wild Species (2 of 2)

Case Study: A Disturbing Message from the Birds (1 of 2)

• Bird Species Decline:
  • 70% of the world's bird species are experiencing population declines.
  • One in eight bird species is currently threatened with extinction, primarily in tropical forest areas.
• Major Causes of Decline:
  • Habitat loss and degradation.
  • Presence of invasive species.
  • Climate change impacts.

Case Study: A Disturbing Message from the Birds (2 of 2)

• Additional Threats:
  • Exposure to pesticides.
  • Overexploitation, particularly of parrots in the pet trade.
  • As indicator species, birds reflect rapid environmental changes.
  • Perform essential ecosystem and economic services; their extinction could adversely affect other species as well.

Rising Demand for Bushmeat Threatens Some African Species (1 of 2)

• Bushmeat Context:
  • Bushmeat is a crucial food source in West and Central Africa.
  • Hunting has drastically increased in recent decades, leading to drastic population declines.
  • Notably, one species of red colobus monkey has gone extinct.
  • There has also been significant population reduction of orangutans, gorillas, chimpanzees, elephants, and hippos.
• Intervention Efforts:
  • USAID is working to introduce alternative protein sources to local villagers to counter the bushmeat trade.

Rising Demand for Bushmeat Threatens Some African Species (2 of 2)

9.4 How Can We Sustain Wild Species and The Ecosystem Services They Provide?

• Strategies for Sustainability:
  • Establish and enforce national environmental laws and international treaties.
  • Create protected wildlife sanctuaries to preserve habitats.

Treaties and Laws Can Help Protect Species

• CITES Overview:
  • The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) was signed by 181 countries in 1975, aiming to regulate international trade in endangered species.
• Convention on Biological Diversity (BCD):
  • Commits governments to combat biodiversity loss; ratified by 196 countries (not including the U.S.).
  • However, it lacks effective enforcement mechanisms.

Case Study: The U.S. Endangered Species Act (1 of 2)

• ESA Overview:
  • The Endangered Species Act (ESA) was enacted in 1973 and has undergone several amendments.
  • The act aims to identify and protect endangered species both within the U.S. and abroad.
  • Recovery programs are created for listed species, overseen by the National Marine Fisheries Service and the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.

Case Study: The U.S. Endangered Species Act (2 of 2)

• ESA Provisions:
  • Federal agencies (with the exception of the Department of Defense) are prohibited from funding projects undermining endangered or threatened species.
  • Requires wildlife commercial shipments to be rerouted through specified ports.
  • As of 2015, there were 1,591 species officially listed, with 90% of ESA-protected species recovering at projected rates.

Critical Concepts: Environmental Policy and How It’s Made

• Policy Lifecycle Stages:
  1. Problems are identified by citizens, interest groups, or corporations.
  2. Research is conducted on the scientific foundations of the issues.
  3. Policy solutions are crafted based on findings.
  4. Policies are monitored for effectiveness.
  5. Adjustments are made as necessary based on outcomes.

Establish Wildlife Refuges and Other Protected Areas (1 of 2)

• Historical Context:
  • Theodore Roosevelt established the first federal wildlife refuge at Pelican Island, Florida, in 1903.
• Wildlife Refuges:
  • Many are wetland sanctuaries that provide habitats for approximately one-fourth of U.S. threatened or endangered species.
  • Many refuge areas still permit harmful activities like mining, drilling, and off-road vehicles, which contradict conservation efforts.

Establish Wildlife Refuges and Other Protected Areas (2 of 2)

Seed Banks, Botanical Gardens, and Wildlife Farms

• Seed Banks:
  • Serve to preserve the genetic material of endangered plant species.
• Botanical Gardens and Arboreta:
  • Maintain living collections of plants.
• Wildlife Farms:
  • Raise organisms primarily for commercial sale purposes.

Zoos and Aquariums (1 of 3)

• Conservation Techniques for Endangered Species:
  • Egg pulling, captive breeding, artificial insemination, embryo transfer, and the use of incubators.
  • Cross-fostering as a method to enhance survival.

Zoos and Aquariums (2 of 3)

• Ultimate Goals of Captive Breeding:
  • Focus on reintroducing healthy populations into the wild.
  • Maintaining a captive population of at least 100 to 500 individuals is crucial for genetic diversity.
  • Public aquariums play a significant role in education but typically lack the funds required for effective genetic conservation efforts.

Zoos and Aquariums (3 of 3)

Precautionary Principle

• Definition:
  • A proactive approach to prevent harm when preliminary evidence suggests that action is necessary.
  • Useful in strategic planning regarding harmful chemical exposure in air, water, and food.
• Emphasis on Species Extinction Prevention:
  • Advocates for early action rather than response after species are critically endangered.

Protecting Species and Ecosystem Services Raises Difficult Questions (1 of 2)

• Key Considerations:
  • Should conservation efforts prioritize specific species or the ecosystems they inhabit?
  • How to determine which species should receive conservation attention?
  • The public’s interest in certain species can help enhance awareness of broader ecological issues.
  • How to effectively allocate limited resources for conservation?

Protecting Species and Ecosystem Services Raises Difficult Questions (2 of 2)