Environmental Justice and Racialized Environments

Race and Racism

Initially, in the 16th century, 'race' denoted kinship. The rise of global capitalism, fueled by colonialism, necessitated labor, leading to enslavement and indenture. As slavery expanded, so did resistance. The European Enlightenment introduced natural laws, creating hierarchical divisions justified by physical markers. These ideas influenced key acts and policies, and even the category of 'white' underwent changes (Fredrickson, 2002; NMoAAHC, online).

Despite differing ancestries, skin colors, or geographic origins, there's nothing inherently different among people (Robbins, 2022, p.158). 'Race' is a social construct, shaped by social, economic, political, and psychological processes (Kosek, 2009; Robbins et al., 2022; Wade, 2018).

Even with its flawed assumptions, 'race' significantly impacts social relations, often with violent consequences. Racism is a material reality, manifesting as prejudice, hierarchical differentiation, and discrimination against specific communities. 'Race' and 'racism' are deeply ingrained in institutions and everyday life (Kosek, 2009; Robbins et al., 2022; Wade, 2018).

Structural Racism

Structural racism refers to systemic patterns and social outcomes resulting from categorizing or discriminating against people based on race. It affects decision-making processes, policies, and institutions, contributing to the subordination of marginalized communities (Feagin, 2006; Feagin et al., 2014; Robbins et al., 2022).

Key characteristics:

• A dominant racial hierarchy.
• Privileged white framings of issues and priorities.
• Direct discrimination against historically marginalized people.
• Perpetuation of material inequality based on race.
• Perpetuation of white domination within critical institutions.

Structural racism oppresses historically marginalized communities and reinforces the identity of the oppressor. It influences various societal aspects, including the environment (Feagin, 2006; Feagin et al., 2014; Robbins et al., 2022).

Structural Environmental Racism

Structural environmental racism refers to the disproportionate exposure of communities of color to environmental hazards, whether through conscious design or institutional neglect (Bullard, 2021). It involves the uneven distribution of environmental 'goods' and 'bads' based on race.

This form of racism stems from racialized cultures, institutions, and beliefs that influence ecological distribution decisions. It manifests differently based on the historical context of a region or country (Martinez-Alier, 2002; Robbins et al., 2022; Scheidel et al., 2020).

Environmental Justice

Environmental justice is a movement and research discipline addressing the drivers and effects of structural environmental racism. It promotes fair ecological distribution among all people, regardless of ethnicity, color, nationality, or income. This includes effective involvement of all people in decision-making processes and equal enforcement of environmental laws, policies, and investments (Martinez-Alier, 2002; Robbins et al., 2022; Rosignoli, 2022; Schlosberg, 2018).

Environmental justice encompasses:

• Distributional justice: Fair distribution of environmental amenities and hazards.
• Recognitional justice: Acknowledging and respecting the rights and perspectives of all communities.
• Procedural justice: Ensuring fair and inclusive decision-making processes.
• Capabilities: Enhancing the ability of all people to participate in environmental decision-making.

Environmental justice gained prominence in the 1980s from the anti-toxic movement (e.g., Love Canal disaster) and anti-environmental racism movement (e.g., PCB-tainted soil event in Warren County, North Carolina, 1982). Its focus has expanded from toxins and dumps to transportation, land use, water quality, energy development, job creation, and food justice; and geographically expanded as well (Robbins et al., 2022; Rosignoli, 2022; Schlosberg, 2018).

Race vs. Class

In the U.S., while non-whites constitute approximately 39\% of the population, they represent 56\% of those living near hazardous waste facilities. Communities with predominantly non-white populations have an average of 48 hazardous waste sites per square mile, compared to 2 in white communities. Non-whites are 80\% more likely to live in areas with high industrial pollution. Black, Latinx, Asian, and Asian-American communities are twice as likely as whites to live in neighborhoods with the greatest air pollution, highlighting the environmental racism gap (Pulido, 2017; Robbins et al., 2022, p.160).

Environmental Injustice in the UK

In the UK, non-white Britons face higher rates of particulate matter pollution (12-29%) compared to white Britons. Deprived neighborhoods are more exposed to harmful environments and industrial lands. Furthermore, deprived populations are more likely to live near rivers with poor chemical/biological quality, and waste recycling/transfer sites are often located in highly deprived areas (Natural England, 2019).

Racial Capitalism

Racism is deeply rooted in the capitalist system since its inception. Colonization involved violent land theft (accumulation) from Indigenous communities viewed as inferior. Capitalist logic categorizes some groups as 'exploitable' and 'expendable,' while others are protected (Pulido et al., 2017; Robbins et al., 2022).

Considering some groups as 'expendable' has environmental repercussions. Non-white communities are less likely to resist or respond to negative environmental changes. This leads to a persistent environmental racism gap between white and non-white communities (Pulido et al., 2017; Robbins et al., 2022).

Climate Change, Migration, and Climate Refugees

Migration due to climate change is a form of environmental injustice. Climate change impacts represent an unfair distribution. The poorest half of the world's population (3.5 billion) is least responsible (10%) for carbon emissions but will suffer the most. The richest 10% is responsible for half of global carbon emissions and has a greater capacity to adapt (Bogardi et al., 2009; Rosignoli, 2022).

Settler Colonialism

Settler colonialism is a historical violent process with ongoing effects. It involves racialized dispossession and subjugation of local populations (Watts, 2009), displacing Indigenous people through exclusionary treaties, ethnic cleansing, and genocides (Robbins et al., 2022; Watts, 2009).

Settler colonialism leads to settler societies that exclude racialized others, institutionalizing oppressive practices against Indigenous people and normalizing the erasure of Indigenous knowledge and exploitation of Indigenous land (Robbins et al., 2022; Watts, 2009).

Indigenous Ecological Knowledge

Indigenous people's interaction with nature has led to accumulated knowledge. Settler colonialism imposed new practices (e.g., farming, timber) that neglected Indigenous knowledge. Indigenous ecological knowledge encompasses hydrological, atmospheric, and medical components. Recent approaches aim to recover Indigenous knowledge for more sustainable practices (Robbins et al., 2022; Sanders, 2006).

Indigenous Environmental Sovereignty

Sovereignty is the power to make decisions over a territory, requiring recognition from external actors. Indigenous sovereignty is the right to self-governance and control over their territory. This sovereignty has faced challenges due to settler colonialism's structural and institutional effects (Garner et al., 2016; Robbins et al., 2022).

'Land Back' Movement

The 'Land Back' movement aims to reclaim stolen elements (land, language, cultural practices, governance, knowledge) for Indigenous people. It seeks to create networks and deploy strategies to recover sovereignty.

Critical Reflections

• How evident is structural environmental racism in my country?
• What institutions play a major role in the perpetuation of environmental racism?
• Are minorities participating in the decisions taken about their environment?
• Are there climate refugees in my local area?
• Have I visited countries with a history of settler colonialism?

Conclusions

• Race is a social construct, while racism is a concrete and violent outcome.
• The capitalist system has a historical link with racism.
• Structural racism influences ecological distribution, resulting in uneven environmental exposure and access.
• Environmental justice addresses the structural forces and outcomes of environmental racism.
• Settler colonialism is a historical violent process with contemporary environmental implications.
• Indigenous knowledge has been largely erased by settler colonialism; recent approaches aim to recover it.