Lecture 11 part 2: Advanced Social Psychology: The Elaboration Likelihood Model and Dynamics of Persuasion
The Elaboration Likelihood Model (Review)
The Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM) is the fundamental framework used by social psychologists to study persuasion.
It proposes two distinct routes through which people are persuaded:
The Central Route: This occurs when an individual is both motivated and able to think deeply about a message. The person analyzes the message for logical coherence and argument quality. People on the central route are specifically responsive to the strength and validity of the arguments provided.
The Peripheral Route: This occurs when an individual is either unmotivated or unable to engage in in-depth cognitive processing. Because they do not want to expend the effort required to evaluate message quality, they are influenced by superficial variables.
Superficial Variables include things like the attractiveness of the speaker, the use of humor, or the celebrity status of the source.
Factors Associated with the Audience
One of the most critical factors of the audience is their Involvement, also referred to as the relevance of the message to the audience's life.
If a message affects a person's life at a deep level, they are highly motivated to think about it, placing them on the central route.
If a message is effectively irrelevant, the person is not motivated to think in-depth, placing them on the peripheral route.
Study Example: High School Comprehensive Exams:
Participants: High school students.
Scenario: A speaker advocated for comprehensive graduation exams that students would need to pass at the end of their four years.
Independent Variable (Relevance): One group was told the policy would be instituted next year (High Relevance/Involvement). The other group was told it would be instituted in years (Low Relevance/Involvement).
Independent Variable (Argument Quality): The speaker provided either strong, high-quality arguments or poor, weak arguments.
Results: Students who believed the policy would affect them next year were greatly influenced by argument strength; they were persuaded by good arguments but not bad ones. Students who believed the policy was years away did not care about argument strength; they were not motivated to spend the cognitive effort and essentially ‐zoned out.‐
Practical Application: Speakers must know audience involvement levels to construct speeches. If the audience is involved, use strong arguments. If they are not involved, superficial variables matter more.
Need for Cognition:
This is a personality variable or an ‐individual difference variable‐ that differs from person to person.
Definition: The extent to which people enjoy effortful cognitive activity.
The Scale: Psychologists use a true/false questionnaire to measure this. Sample items include: ‐Thinking is not my idea of fun‐ (Reverse scored) or liking tasks that require little thought.
High Need for Cognition: These individuals enjoy thinking and tend to process messages via the central route, focusing on arguments.
Low Need for Cognition: These individuals dislike effortful thought and are more likely to be persuaded via the peripheral route.
Culture:
Individualist (Western) Cultures: Focus on the independent self-concept. Successful slogans emphasize being unique, a leader, or standing out. Examples: ‐You, only better,‐ ‐A leader among leaders,‐ and ‐Make your way through the crowd.‐
Collectivist (Eastern) Cultures: Focus on the interdependent self-concept and fitting in. Successful slogans emphasize interconnectedness and family. Examples: ‐Our family agrees with the selection of home furnishings,‐ ‐A way of bringing people closer together,‐ and ‐A more exhilarating way to provide for your family.‐
Factors Associated with the Source
Credibility: Influences the audience if they believe the source is reliable. Credibility consists of two components:
Expertise: The speaker appears to have specialized knowledge (e.g., a medical doctor for health topics).
Trustworthiness: The speaker appears to be honest and not just trying to take advantage of the audience (e.g., a used car salesman may have expertise but lacks trustworthiness due to commissions).
Relationship to ELM: Credibility primarily affects people on the peripheral route. People on the central route focus on the arguments themselves; whether the speaker is a doctor or a high school graduate shouldn't matter if the logic is the same.
The Sleeper Effect:
Usually, persuasion is strongest immediately and wears off over time. The sleeper effect is the exception where a message becomes more persuasive over time.
This occurs when a message comes from a low-credibility source (e.g., the National Enquirer stating scientists found a cure for cancer).
Initially, the audience dismisses the information because of the source. However, people remember arguments longer than they remember the source. Two weeks later, the person may remember the information but forget it came from a low-credibility source, making them more likely to believe it.
Likability: Also comprised of two components:
Similarity: We like people who are similar to us because we like ourselves. This is why politicians often portray themselves as ‐average Americans‐ even if they are wealthy.
Physical Appeal: This includes physical attractiveness and celebrity status. Companies use celebrity endorsements (e.g., soccer player David Beckham selling Sharpie pens) because attractiveness increases likability, which influences the peripheral route.
Factors Associated with the Message
Fear Appraisals: Attempts to change behavior by scaring people (e.g., ‐Smoking will kill you‐ or ‐Cocaine makes you dead‐).
Effectiveness: Fear appraisals only work if they include instructions on how to avoid the negative outcome (e.g., providing a quitting hotline number).
Without a solution, people become defensive and use justifications to minimize the perceived threat.
Audience Mood:
People in a happy mood are less motivated to think in-depth because they want to maintain their happiness, which is easier with superficial thinking. They are more easily persuaded by peripheral route factors.
Studies show viewers are more persuaded by peripheral ads while eating or while watching comedies compared to dramas.
Message Discrepancy:
If a message is too discrepant (too different) from the audience's current position, they will tune it out immediately (e.g., Westboro Baptist Church protests at military funerals).
Moderate Discrepancy is the most persuasive approach.
One-Sided vs. Two-Sided Arguments:
One-Sided: Giving only your position. Most effective if the audience already agrees with you or is unaware of opposing views.
Two-Sided: Giving your position, acknowledging the opponent, and then refuting it. This is generally more persuasive because audiences are usually aware of opposing viewpoints.
Primacy vs. Recency Effects:
Primacy Effect: If Message 1 and Message 2 are given back-to-back and there is a delay before the decision, the first message is more persuasive because it frames the issue.
Recency Effect: If there is a delay between Message 1 and Message 2, and the decision is made immediately after Message 2, the second message is more persuasive because it is fresh in memory.
Subliminal Messages
Definition: Messages presented below the level of conscious awareness.
History: In the , a drive-in theater owner claimed flashing ‐Eat Popcorn‐ and ‐Drink Coke‐ increased sales; these claims were largely unfounded but sparked public concern about being controlled like robots.
Judas Priest Trial: The band was sued by parents of two teens who committed suicide, alleging subliminal messages in the music. The case was dropped because there was no evidence that such messages could control behavior.
The Tape Study: Participants used cassette tapes for self-esteem or weight loss. Researchers swapped labels so some thought they had a self-esteem tape but actually had a weight loss tape. Participants reported improvement based on the label, not the content. This proved it was a placebo effect.
Pattern Recognition (Lion King, Pepsi, and Gin examples):
Humans are experts at finding patterns in random data (illusory correlations).
In the Lion King, dust clouds that some see as ‐SEX‐ are likely ‐SFX‐ (Special Effects) put in as an ‐Easter egg‐ by animators.
Subliminal messages in advertisements (like the word ‐SEX‐ in ice cubes) do not actually influence buying behavior.
Resisting Persuasion
Attitude Inoculation:
Just like a vaccine, being exposed to a weak version of an argument (or a warning) builds ‐antibodies‐ to resist stronger future arguments.
Warning Study: High school students given a -minute warning about a talk to change the driving age were much harder to persuade than those who were surprised. The warning allows time to generate counterarguments.
Psychological Reactance:
People value their autonomy and freedom. If they feel someone is trying to take away their freedom by telling them what they can't do, they are motivated to re-exert that freedom by doing the exact opposite.
This makes persuasion backfire (e.g., ‐No Machete Juggling‐ signs causing an urge to juggle machetes).
Parental Disapproval Study: Relationships often last longer when parents disapprove because the teen is motivated to prove their independence.
Graffiti Study: Public restrooms with signs saying ‐Under no circumstances should you ever write on these walls‐ had significantly more graffiti than restrooms with a gentle ‐Please do not write on the walls‐ sign.
Questions & Discussion
Question on Censorship: Does the act of censoring something make people want it more?
Response: Yes, it often backfires. This is known as the Barbara Streisand effect. If people perceive the censorship as a threat to their freedom, they will want the censored material more. If they perceive it as justified (e.g., protecting children), the reactance may not occur.
Question on Culture and Reactance: Are people in individualist cultures more susceptible to psychological reactance?
Response: It makes sense that Western cultures, which emphasize individual choice and leadership, would be more susceptible to threats to freedom, whereas collectivist cultures might be less susceptible in certain situations.