AP Gov. Unit 4/5
Unit 4: American Political Ideologies and Beliefs
Key Concepts:
Political Ideologies:
Conservatism:
Emphasizes traditional values, personal responsibility, free markets, and a limited government.
Key Figures: Ronald Reagan, Barry Goldwater.
Policies: Tax cuts, deregulation, and strong national defense.
Liberalism:
Advocates for government intervention to achieve social justice, economic equality, and protect individual rights.
Key Figures: Franklin D. Roosevelt, John F. Kennedy.
Policies: Social welfare programs, environmental regulations, and healthcare reform.
Libertarianism:
Supports minimal government involvement in all aspects of life, promoting maximum personal freedom and economic liberty.
Key Figures: Ron Paul, Gary Johnson.
Policies: Reduction of government spending, elimination of federal income tax, and non-interventionist foreign policy.
Socialism:
Advocates for social ownership of the means of production and redistribution of wealth to achieve economic equality.
Key Figures: Bernie Sanders, Eugene V. Debs.
Policies: Universal healthcare, free college tuition, and higher taxes on the wealthy.
Progressivism:
Key Concepts: Progressivism emphasizes government intervention to correct social and economic inequality, protect the environment, and curb the power of big corporations. It seeks reforms that address issues like workers’ rights, consumer protection, and economic justice.
Key Figures: Theodore Roosevelt, Woodrow Wilson.
Policies:
Trust-busting (breaking up monopolies)
Labor rights (minimum wage, workplace safety)
Social programs (education, healthcare reform)
Environmental protection (National Parks system)
Populism:
Key Concepts: Populism centers around the idea of representing the "common people" against the perceived elite or establishment. It often emphasizes anti-government sentiments, economic nationalism, and cultural conservatism.
Key Figures: Andrew Jackson (historical), Donald Trump, Bernie Sanders (modern populists with different ideological focuses).
Policies:
Protectionist trade policies
Anti-elitism
Advocacy for the working class
Opposition to free trade agreements and immigration reform (varies based on political spectrum)
Core American Values:
Individualism: Emphasis on personal independence and self-reliance.
Equality of Opportunity: The belief that each person should have the same chance to achieve success.
Free Enterprise: Economic system with minimal government interference, promoting competition and innovation.
Rule of Law: Principle that everyone, including government officials, is subject to the law.
Limited Government: The idea that governmental power should be restricted to protect individual liberties.
Political Socialization:
Agents of Socialization: Family, schools, peers, media, and social environments influence political beliefs and behaviors.
Life Cycle Effects: Changes in political beliefs as people age and experience different stages of life.
Generational Effects: Impact of significant historical events on the political attitudes of an entire generation (e.g., Great Depression, Vietnam War).
Political Efficacy:
Internal Efficacy: The belief that one can understand and influence political events.
External Efficacy: The belief that the government will respond to citizens' demands.
Public Opinion:
Polling: Methods of measuring public opinion, including random sampling and question wording.
Media Influence: The role of media in shaping and reflecting public opinion.
Voter ID Laws:
Key Concepts: Voter ID laws require individuals to present government-issued photo identification in order to vote. These laws are controversial because they may disenfranchise voters, particularly minorities, the elderly, and low-income citizens who are less likely to have such IDs.
Impact: Critics argue that these laws are a form of voter suppression, while supporters contend that they prevent voter fraud and protect the integrity of elections.
Gerrymandering:
Key Concepts: Gerrymandering involves drawing congressional district boundaries to favor one political party over another. It often leads to districts that are politically uncompetitive, as districts are manipulated to ensure a particular party’s victory.
Impact: Gerrymandering can distort representation by making some votes less impactful than others, particularly in swing states. This can reduce voter confidence and engagement.
Voting Rights Restrictions (Post-Shelby County v. Holder):
Key Concepts: The 2013 Shelby County v. Holder decision by the Supreme Court struck down Section 4(b) of the Voting Rights Act of 1965, which required states with a history of discrimination to obtain federal approval (preclearance) before changing their voting laws.
Impact: Since the ruling, many states have implemented laws requiring voter ID, restricting early voting, purging voter rolls, and making it harder to register, which critics argue disproportionately affect minority communities.
Recent Trends: Some states have passed laws that limit access to the polls, particularly targeting African American, Hispanic, and younger voters, raising concerns about voter suppression in the wake of Shelby.
Major Events:
Seneca Falls Convention (1848):
Organized by Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Lucretia Mott, it was the first women's rights convention in the United States.
The Declaration of Sentiments, modeled after the Declaration of Independence, called for equal rights for women, including the right to vote.
15th Amendment (1870):
Granted African American men the right to vote.
Supported by many abolitionists and Republicans but opposed by some women's rights activists who wanted it to include women's suffrage as well.
Key Figures: Frederick Douglass/Henry Browne Blackwell/Lucy Stone (supporter), Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Susan B. Anthony (opposed it without inclusion of women).
National Woman Suffrage Association (NWSA):
Founded in 1869 by Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Susan B. Anthony.
Focused on securing women's right to vote through a federal constitutional amendment.
Opposed the 15th Amendment for excluding women.
Civil Rights Movement:
The Civil Rights Movement was instrumental in securing and expanding political participation, especially for African Americans and other marginalized groups. Key moments in the movement and its legal victories had profound effects on suffrage and political engagement.
Key Events and Legislation:
Brown v. Board of Education (1954):
Impact on Political Participation: This landmark Supreme Court case overturned the doctrine of "separate but equal" and declared that racial segregation in public schools was unconstitutional. While primarily a desegregation case, it laid the groundwork for broader civil rights advancements by challenging the legal basis for racial discrimination.
Civil Rights Act of 1964:
Impact on Voting Rights: The Civil Rights Act addressed a wide range of discriminatory practices, including segregation in public places and unequal employment opportunities. It played a pivotal role in dismantling the institutional barriers to African American participation in both political and social life.
Key Provisions: It prohibited discrimination based on race, color, religion, sex, or national origin in employment, education, and public accommodations.
Voting Rights Act of 1965:
Key Provisions: The Voting Rights Act was perhaps the most significant federal law for expanding suffrage to African Americans in the 20th century. It aimed to eliminate legal barriers at the state and local levels that had been systematically used to disenfranchise African Americans, particularly in the South.
Key Provisions Included:
Banning literacy tests and other discriminatory voting practices.
Federal oversight (preclearance) of voting laws in states with a history of discriminatory practices.
Impact: The act led to a significant increase in African American voter registration, particularly in the South, and strengthened the legal foundation for future voting rights protections.
Shelby County v. Holder (2013):
Impact: In this controversial Supreme Court case, the Court struck down Section 4(b) of the Voting Rights Act, which established a formula for determining which states required federal approval before changing their voting laws. The ruling weakened the VRA and led to the removal of federal oversight in certain states, sparking concerns over a resurgence of voter suppression tactics, particularly affecting African American voters.
Key Figures:
Martin Luther King Jr.: A central figure in the Civil Rights Movement, King advocated for nonviolent civil disobedience and led major events such as the 1963 March on Washington, where he delivered his famous "I Have a Dream" speech.
Rosa Parks: Known for her pivotal role in the Montgomery Bus Boycott, Parks became an icon of resistance to racial segregation.
John Lewis: A leader in the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) and later a U.S. Congressman, John Lewis was an essential figure in advocating for civil rights and voting rights, participating in the Selma to Montgomery marches, which directly influenced the passage of the Voting Rights Act of 1965.
Suffrage Movements:
The fight for the right to vote has been a key component of both the Women’s Suffrage Movement and the African American Civil Rights Movement. The struggle for suffrage was deeply intertwined with broader social and political movements for equality.
Women’s Suffrage Movement:
Seneca Falls Convention (1848):
Significance: This was the first organized effort for women's rights in the United States, and it marked the beginning of the formal women's suffrage movement. The Declaration of Sentiments, modeled on the Declaration of Independence, demanded equal rights for women, including the right to vote.
Key Figures: Elizabeth Cady Stanton, Lucretia Mott, Susan B. Anthony.
The 19th Amendment (1920):
Impact: This constitutional amendment granted women the right to vote, marking a major victory for the women’s suffrage movement. It enfranchised half of the population that had previously been excluded from voting based solely on gender.
Key Figures: Susan B. Anthony, Elizabeth Cady Stanton, Alice Paul, and Carrie Chapman Catt.
The Silent Sentinels (1917–1919):
Significance: A group of suffragists who picketed the White House to demand a federal amendment for women’s suffrage. Their activism helped to elevate the issue to the national spotlight, eventually leading to the passage of the 19th Amendment.
Modern Women’s Rights Movement:
The fight for gender equality continued after the 19th Amendment, with major milestones such as the passage of the Equal Pay Act (1963) and the Title IX law (1972), which prohibited gender discrimination in federally funded education programs and activities, including sports.
Contemporary Issues: The struggle for reproductive rights (e.g., abortion, birth control access) and the fight for equal representation in politics and business continue to be central issues in the women's rights movement.
African American Suffrage:
15th Amendment (1870):
Impact: The 15th Amendment granted African American men the right to vote, prohibiting states from denying the right based on race, color, or previous condition of servitude. However, southern states implemented various disenfranchisement strategies, such as literacy tests, poll taxes, and grandfather clauses, to circumvent the amendment and prevent African Americans from voting.
Key Figures: Frederick Douglass, W.E.B. Du Bois, and others who fought for black political participation after the Civil War.
Poll Taxes, Literacy Tests, and Disenfranchisement:
Impact: These barriers systematically disenfranchised African American voters, particularly in the South. Even though the 15th Amendment theoretically gave African American men the right to vote, these discriminatory tactics severely limited their ability to vote.
Impact of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and Voting Rights Act of 1965: These laws were a direct response to the disenfranchisement of African Americans and dismantled many of the obstacles that had been put in place to prevent their participation in the electoral process.
The Black Power Movement (1960s–1970s):
Significance: Emerging alongside the Civil Rights Movement, this movement focused on racial pride, economic empowerment, and the creation of political and social structures that allowed African Americans to have a greater voice in American society.
Key Figures: Stokely Carmichael (Kwame Ture), Malcolm X, and others who promoted Black self-determination and the need for greater political engagement within African American communities.
Unit 5: Political Participation
Key Concepts:
Voter Behavior:
Demographics: Factors such as age, race, gender, and socioeconomic status that impact voting behavior.
Political Socialization: Process by which individuals acquire their political beliefs and values.
Election Campaigns: Strategies used to mobilize and persuade voters.
Political Parties:
Functions: Mobilizing voters, facilitating governance, and organizing elections.
Party Systems: Two-party system vs. multiparty systems.
Party Realignment: Significant shifts in party loyalty and voting patterns.
Interest Groups:
Types: Economic, public interest, government, and single-issue groups.
Lobbying: Methods used by interest groups to influence policy-making.
Iron Triangle: The relationship between interest groups, bureaucrats, and legislators.
Super PACs and the Influence of Money in Politics:
Key Concepts: The rise of Super PACs (Political Action Committees) following the Citizens United v. FEC (2010) ruling has fundamentally changed how money influences politics. These groups can raise and spend unlimited amounts of money to support or oppose political candidates, leading to concerns about the undue influence of wealthy donors and corporations in the electoral process.
Impact on Campaigns:
Increased Spending: The ability of Super PACs to raise unlimited funds has led to an explosion of campaign spending, particularly in presidential elections.
Negative Ads: Super PACs often focus on airing negative ads about candidates, shaping public perception of political figures.
Influence: Super PACs, especially those funded by large corporations or billionaires, have significant influence over which candidates or policies receive funding and media attention.
Elections:
Primary Elections: Process of selecting party nominees for general elections.
General Elections: Voters select officeholders from among party nominees.
Special Elections: Held to fill vacancies or decide specific issues.
Campaigns and Elections:
Campaign Strategies: Use of media, debates, and advertising to influence voters.
Campaign Finance: Funding sources and regulations for political campaigns.
Social Media Influence:
Key Concepts: Social media plays an increasing role in shaping public opinion, especially among younger voters. Platforms like Twitter, Facebook, Instagram, and TikTok are used to promote political messages, organize events, and engage with voters directly.
Impact on Voter Behavior:
Mobilization: Social media serves as a tool to mobilize voters, particularly young people, who are typically less likely to vote.
Echo Chambers & Filter Bubbles: These platforms can reinforce existing political beliefs and create echo chambers where users are exposed primarily to information that aligns with their views.
Disinformation: The spread of false or misleading information, particularly through viral content, can affect the way people view political candidates or issues.
Major Events:
Andrew Jackson's Democracy Era (1829-1837):
Expansion of suffrage to most white men over the age of 21, removing property requirements.
Promoted a more direct form of democracy and sought to dismantle elitist structures in government.
Key Policies: Opposition to the national bank, support for westward expansion, and implementation of the Indian Removal Act.
Civil Rights Movement:
Influenced voting rights and political participation, leading to the Voting Rights Act of 1965.
Key Figures: Martin Luther King Jr., Rosa Parks, John Lewis.
Women's Suffrage Movement:
Resulted in the 19th Amendment in 1920, granting women the right to vote.
Key Figures: Susan B. Anthony, Elizabeth Cady Stanton, Alice Paul.
Major Events: Seneca Falls Convention, National Women's Party's push for a federal amendment, and the Silent Sentinels' protest.
Depth Seneca Falls Convention: The declaration of Sentiments (12 demands)
The Right to Vote: Women should have the same voting rights as men.
Right to Own Property: Women should have the right to own property after marriage, just like men.
Equal Education Opportunities: Women should have access to the same education as men and the ability to pursue higher education.
Equal Rights in Marriage: Women should have equal rights within marriage, including control over their own property.
Right to Divorce: Women should have the right to initiate divorce in cases of abuse, adultery, or neglect.
Equal Rights in Custody of Children: Women should have the right to full custody of their children in case of separation or divorce.
Employment Opportunities: Women should have the right to work and receive equal pay for equal work.
Equality Before the Law: Women should be considered equal before the law and not be subject to laws that discriminate against them.
Right to Religious Participation: Women should have the right to speak and participate in religious activities.
Access to Public Office: Women should have the right to hold public office and participate in political affairs.
Equal Legal Rights: Women should have the same legal rights as men, particularly in contracts and property ownership.
Right to Speak Publicly: Women should have the right to speak publicly and participate in public debates and political matters.
Shelby County v. Holder (2013):
Supreme Court decision that struck down key provisions of the Voting Rights Act of 1965, affecting the enforcement of voting rights protections.
Impact: States previously covered by the Act's preclearance requirement could change their voting laws without federal approval.
Citizens United v. FEC (2010):
Supreme Court decision that changed the rules governing campaign finance.
Ruling: Allowed corporations and unions to spend unlimited amounts on political campaigns, leading to the rise of Super PACs.
Crawford v. Marion County Election Board (2008): The Supreme Court upheld Indiana's law requiring voters to present government-issued photo identification, ruling that it did not violate the Constitution. The Court found that the law's burden on voters was justified by the state's interest in preventing voter fraud
Political Ideologies and the Impact of Modern Social Movements
Social Movements and Ideology Shifts:
The Rise of the Tea Party (2009): A conservative political movement that emerged in response to the expansion of government under the Obama administration. The Tea Party advocated for lower taxes, reduced government spending, and strict interpretations of the U.S. Constitution. This movement played a significant role in reshaping the Republican Party's ideology and pushing for fiscal conservatism.
Black Lives Matter (BLM): A modern social movement advocating for the rights of African Americans and addressing systemic racial inequality and police violence. BLM has influenced public discourse, policy debates on law enforcement practices, and voter mobilization among African Americans and youth.
#MeToo Movement: A movement against sexual harassment and assault, primarily focused on advocating for women's rights, which has sparked debates about gender equality, workplace rights, and the treatment of women in politics and society.
Increasing Ideological Polarization:
The growing ideological divide between conservatives and liberals in recent decades has led to heightened partisanship in American politics. This is reflected in gridlock in Congress, more partisan media consumption, and greater ideological sorting, where people align with others who share similar political views.
Causes of Polarization: The role of social media, increasing political tribalism, the decline of moderate voices in both major political parties, and gerrymandering have all contributed to the current climate of political division.
Changing Demographics and Political Ideologies:
Millennials and Gen Z: Younger generations are more likely to support progressive policies on issues such as climate change, income inequality, and social justice. The growing diversity of these generations also leads to shifts in party alignments and ideological preferences.
Hispanic Voters: As the Latino population grows in the U.S., their political preferences are increasingly shaping the future of both major political parties, with younger Latino voters showing more support for progressive policies.
Aging Population: The increasing proportion of older Americans can influence political ideologies, particularly in terms of policies on Social Security, healthcare, and pensions, often resulting in more conservative leanings
Factors Affecting Voter Turnout:
Civic Duty and Voter Efficacy: People who believe their vote can make a difference are more likely to vote. Campaigns that emphasize the importance of voting often encourage higher turnout.
Registration Laws: In some states, voter registration is an obstacle, either due to strict laws or the lack of automatic registration. States that have implemented automatic voter registration (AVR) systems or same-day voter registration often see higher turnout.
Voting Barriers (e.g., Voter ID laws, early voting restrictions): States that impose voter ID laws or restrict early voting can see lower turnout among specific demographic groups, particularly people of color and low-income voters.
Demographic Factors in Voter Behavior:
Age and Turnout: Older adults are more likely to vote than younger voters. The youth vote has historically been lower in turnout, although movements like March for Our Lives (for gun control) have worked to energize young voters.
Race and Voting Patterns: African American voters tend to support Democratic candidates in larger numbers, especially following the Civil Rights Movement, and the same holds for other minority groups like Latinos and Asian Americans (although these groups show diversity in voting behavior).
Gender and Voting: Women, particularly white women, have shown increasingly higher turnout rates in recent elections. The gender gap in voting, with women tending to lean Democratic and men leaning Republican, has been growing in recent years.
Education and Income Levels: Voter turnout tends to be higher among those with higher levels of education and income. Lower-income voters may face more barriers to participation, such as lack of access to polling places or time off from work.
Campaign Strategies and Mobilization:
Use of Social Media in Campaigns: Social media has become a powerful tool for campaigns to mobilize supporters, target voters with personalized content, and influence public opinion. The 2008 Barack Obama campaign famously used digital platforms to raise funds, organize, and engage voters, a strategy that has been increasingly adopted by later candidates.
Microtargeting and Data Analytics: Modern political campaigns rely on data analytics to identify specific voter preferences and tailor messages to different demographics. Campaigns collect data from social media, voter registries, and past voting behavior to create highly targeted advertisements.
Negative Campaigning: Negative ads (attack ads) are a common strategy used in U.S. elections, often focusing on candidates’ flaws, scandals, or controversial statements to weaken opponents and sway public opinion.
Influence of Money in Politics:
Citizens United v. FEC (2010): This landmark Supreme Court ruling allowed for unlimited contributions to political campaigns through Super PACs (Political Action Committees), which have dramatically changed the landscape of campaign financing. The case has led to the rise of big-money donors and corporate influence in politics.
Dark Money: After Citizens United, there was a rise in "dark money" spending by organizations that do not disclose their donors. This has raised concerns about the transparency of political donations and the disproportionate influence of wealthy individuals and corporations.
Electoral College and Presidential Elections:
Electoral College Controversy: A candidate can win the popular vote but lose the Electoral College (as happened in the 2000 and 2016 elections). This system is criticized for disproportionately giving power to smaller states and swing states, while ignoring the will of voters in larger states.
Swing States and Battleground States: States like Florida, Pennsylvania, Michigan, and Wisconsin play a crucial role in determining the outcome of presidential elections, as they have a large number of electoral votes and are not strongly aligned with one political party.
Interest Groups and Political Influence:
Types of Interest Groups:
Economic Interest Groups: These include groups like business associations (e.g., U.S. Chamber of Commerce), labor unions (e.g., AFL-CIO), and agricultural interest groups. They seek to influence government policies in favor of their economic interests.
Public Interest Groups: These groups focus on advancing social causes and public policy issues, such as environmental protection (e.g., Sierra Club), civil rights (e.g., ACLU), and consumer protection.
Single-Issue Groups: These interest groups focus on one specific policy area, such as the National Rifle Association (NRA) advocating for gun rights or Planned Parenthood advocating for reproductive rights.
Lobbying and the Iron Triangle:
Lobbying is a key activity through which interest groups influence policy. Lobbyists engage with lawmakers, bureaucrats, and the judiciary to promote policies that benefit their interests.
The Iron Triangle refers to the relationship between Congress, bureaucratic agencies, and interest groups. These three entities often work together to shape policy decisions that align with their mutual interests.
IMPORTANT QUESTIONS
How long is the term of a US Senator? 6 years
How long is the term of a US Representative? 2 years
What fraction of the US Senate is up every 2 years? 1/3
How many Representatives are up for election every 2 years? 435
In 2020, how many total US lawmakers (Senators + Representatives) were up for election/reelection? 535 (100 Senators + 435 Representatives)
What is the purpose of Step 1 (primary elections & caucuses)? To select party nominees for the general election.
Virginia is a/an: OPEN PRIMARY STATE
Which state’s caucus is always first in the season and usually serves as an early indicator of success? Iowa
Which step are most Americans familiar with? General Election
During which TWO steps do presidential candidates spend the most money? Primaries and General Election
TRUE or FALSE: A presidential candidate can win the popular vote but lose the Electoral Vote. True
Election of 2000 - Al Gore won the popular vote but lost the Electoral College to George W. Bush