the u.k.
Government changes—After the government turned from an authoritarian monarchy into a democracy, there have been many switches of government, mostly among the Prime Ministers rather than those in the monarchy. Britain moved towards a welfare state since the 1800s, in which each government began to slowly involve the new emerging middle class more and more and began supporting workers in their labor unions more. The most significant changes include Churchill’s move towards a welfare state was significant when combined with the idea that people should put class differences aside, and how these reforms lasted as the government changed several more times. He had turned from a Conservative Prime Minister into one that included all parties, and his reforms continued onwards even after the Conservative Party regained power in the 1950s. The next significant government change was the change to Margaret Thatcher, who almost single-handedly turned this welfare state on its head as she moved in a more right-leaning, conservative direction. Thatcher resigned in 1990, and while the government changes remained conservative and supported some of her policies, they were more moderate in their moves. John Major followed Margaret Thatcher, but the Labour Party soon won again with Tony Blair, who soon lost his popularity and lost the people’s trust in the Labour Party due to his support of the war in Iraq. The following government change introduced Gordon Brown, but he could not fight off the controversial legacy of his predecessor. There was no party win in 2010, and David Cameron led a coalition government until the Conservatives won again in 2015.
Regime changes—Britain has generally been a democratic state for the entirety of its existence as a state. The earliest democratic reforms date back to 1066, when the king handed off some of his power that was given to him from the monarchy to members of Parliament, limiting his power and his control over the state. Further documents and other things that make up the “Constitution of the Crown” came about until the power of Parliament almost totally eclipsed the king’s power by the 17th century, officially marking its gradual transition from full monarchy to democracy. It took much fighting to get there, but by 1688, with the Glorious Revolution, Mary and William officially signed off with restrictions on their power. As time continued on, Britain slowly added more and more people to those who were able to vote, which gradually included the country as a whole. Although they remained democratic as their imperialist tendencies grew, the loss of their colonies also marks a regime change in which Britain’s power and control slips slightly more as it changes policies to accommodate the current globalization of the world.
Describe where the country falls on a scale of democracy to authoritarianism—Britain is fairly democratic. They have open elections, their monarchy and Prime Minister are checked by each other, Parliament, and the House of Lords/Commons. While they do have some government intervention in the economy, it still maintains basic capitalist principles. There is universal suffrage for voters with some exceptions, growing equal rights, and so on and so forth.
Sources of authority for the country—Britain does not have a written constitution, but rather has several important documents, common laws, and customs that make up their “Constitution of the Crown” and provide their authority and right to rule the country as they rule it currently. Having a written constitution would probably further found their authority in reality.
The level of political legitimacy of the country—Britain has strong traditional legitimacy, because of how old the empire is and how they have maintained their regime without much change (besides gradual change altered by time) over the past thousand years. Their tradition of having a monarch that is still kept in check with a rational-legal system provides further legitimacy for them to rule. The country (at least in England) hold a strong sense of nationalism, which further founds the idea of legitimacy under the Crown.
How has the legitimacy trended recently (up or down) and why? With the political instability of the government changes between Margaret Thatcher, Tony Blair, David Cameron, and, more recently, Boris Johnson (recently resigned), has caused legitimacy to trend downwards in recent years. It has even reached the point where no party could be decided to rule in 2010 because the people did not have enough trust in the government, their Prime Ministers, and their parties. There has been too much fighting between the Parties themselves, too many bad decisions made by both Prime Ministers of the Conservative Party and the Labour Party in recent years to make up for the country’s loss of trust.
Britain in was the first country in Europe to develop a limited monarchy, and democratic institutions and modern industrialization have roots in English soil. English influence spread all over the world and their empire. Britain was named “Great Britain.”
Britain has slowly slipped out of the front rank of western European economies, but it is still a major player in world politics.
Great Britain has the oldest democratic tradition of any country in the world, and has many sources of authority and power to provide stability and legitimacy.
One of these sources of legitimacy is its traditional legitimacy. This tradition includes a monarchy, but the king’s power was limited early, until Parliament eclipsed his power by the end of the 17th century. Most British citizens accept a church/state relationship.
Britain does not have a written constitution, instead having their laws evolve over time. The “Constitution of the Crown” is made up of important documents, common law, and customs.
Magna Carta (1215) — King John signed this document, agreeing to consult nobles before making important political decisions. This formed the basis of the limited government.
The Bill of Rights (1688) — these are rights retained by Parliament, including policymaking power and power of the purse.
Common law— this legal system is based on customs and precedent, and it is now found all over the places with strong English influence. It allows the decision that public officials and courts make to set precedents for later on.
The shaping of the monarchy— the British monarchy has been in place for many centuries, as well as giving the monarchy limited powers as early as the 13th century.
The ascendancy of Parliament— during the English Civil War, a conflict between the king and Parliament ended up with Parliament winning and executing the king. The monarchy was soon restored afterwards, however. In the Glorious Revolution of 1688, Mary and William signed written restrictions on their power.
Challenges of the Industrial Revolution— colonial mercantilism and the Industrial Revolution established England as a major economic power. This changed traditional society and its economic bases in feudalism. Trade with colonies and the manufacture of goods created wealth held by the new middle class. Peasants moved from rural cities and worked in factories. Merchants, businessmen, and workers demanded to make decisions in the political system.
Colonialism— from 1750 to 1914, nationalism and industrialization made it possible for European nations to build global empires. The British Empire was among the most powerful empires in all of world history. Nationalism rallied citizens’ support for overseas expansion. Industrialization allowed goods to sell in foreign markets, and they looked for raw materials not from home. Claiming lands far away increased wealth and power. Industrialization made communications and transportation more efficient and linked lands together. However, the erosion of the British Empire started with the American colonies in the late 18th century, even though they were gaining other lands (that they would soon lose).
Britain in the 20th and early 21st centuries— In the early 20th century, Britain was the greatest imperialist nation. By the 21st century, its power was diminished by world wars, serious economic problems, and the rising power of the United States. Britain developed a strong welfare state, but was curtailed by Thatcherism, a conservative, capitalist backlash led by Margaret Thatcher. Tony Blair has charted a course towards the “A Third Way”, but this waned when he supported the war in Iraq. No party won in 2010, forcing a coalition government between the Conservatives and Liberal Democrats. Modern Britain is now finding a balance between the benefits of the welfare state and the trend towards a market economy.
Political Culture— Great Britain has a big sense of nationalism, or pride for being English. They also have insularity, or feeling separate from the rest of Europe. This has caused Britain to have a cautious attitude towards the European Union. Most EU members accepted the euro as common currency, but Britain refused and kept the English pound. Still, their culture has spread its influence all around the world.
Noblesse oblige and social class— An important tradition is noblesse oblige, which is the duty of the upper classes to take responsibility for the welfare of the lower classes. This custom began with feudalism, and it is now reflected in the “welfare state” which includes the National Health Service. It gained support by much of Europe with common acceptance of the government’s responsibility to provide public benefits, education, health care, and transportation. However, Margaret Thatcher’s brought Britain’s acceptance into question by cutting social services.
Multi-nationalism— Britain has a relatively large amount of cultural homogeneity, its boundaries include England, Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland, who have all been different nations in the past. English is a common language, but it is spoken with different dialects, and religious differences are a major source of conflict. These national identities greatly impact the political system.
The legitimacy of the British government is evidenced by people willing to obey the law. Britain's police force is smaller than most advanced democracies, and crimes tend to be based on individual violence, not attacks on the state. Until recently, the only notable exception was Northern Ireland, where crimes have been carried out with the objective of overturning an elected government. Britain has experienced terrorist acts as part of a larger wave of terrorism.
England has been affected by geographical features like an island, Britain is far enough away from mainland Europe for protection as long as it has a good navy, but it’s still close enough to allow interaction. With its small size, resources are limited and it made its efforts to colonize other lands even stronger. With a short supply of fertile soil, short growing season, Britain’s ability to feed its population is limited. With its temperate climate, but cold, chilly, and rainy, Britain’s population has one of the highest population density but their population is uneven, with less people living in the North. Finally, it has no major geographical barriers, like no large mountains, deserts, or raging rivers that hamper transportation/communication.
POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC CHANGE
Political change in Britain has been very gradual. Gradualism established strong traditions, explaining the transition in policymaking power from the king to Parliament. This transition can be traced back all the way to 1066. As the middle class rose, it established both the “House of Commons” and the “House of Lords.” Both were created through evolution. Despite this gradualism, the political system also had to adjust to internal economic changes and crises, like the Industrial Revolution, imperialistic aspirations, the two world wars, and the 1970s and 1980s economic crises.
Adjusting to the Industrial Revolution— This began in the late 18th century, and created a new business middle class and laborers. Parliament resisted including these new classes, thinking it may lead to revolution, but gradualism guided them to incorporate these new elements. This decision is a reflection of noblesse oblige.
Extension of Voting Rights and Work and Welfare Reforms— began with the Great Reform Act of 1832, which allowed 300,000 more men the right to vote, and the House of Commons gained more power than the House of Lords. The Reform Act of 1867 helped the electorate each 3,000,000, as many working-class people were allowed to vote. The Representation of the People Act of 1884 expanded the electorate further to include the majority of voters. Finally, there was Women’s suffrage, where in 1918 another Representation of the People Act allowed all men and women over the age of 30 to vote in local election. 8,400,000 women were enfranchised. By 1928, all women 21 and over were allowed to vote.
This gradual inclusion of the people in the political process meant that Marxism did not take root as it did in other parts of Europe, where the middle and lower classes had fewer political rights.
Labor unions were formed in the 19th century to protect workers’ rights, and by the end of the 19th century, some basic provisions were made for social services, like mandatory elementary education. From 1906 to 1914, laws were enacted providing for old age pensions.
Political Effects of the Extension of Rights to the “Common Man”— By 1911, the House of Lords had one significant power— the delaying of legislation. Political party membership was determined largely by class lines. The Labour Party was created in 1906 to represent the working man, and the Conservative Party had most of its members from middle-class men.
A demand for welfare measures put pressure on the political systems. Reforms were passed, including ones for public education, housing, jobs, and medical care. The Labour Party pushed the Liberals into a third party status. They were never Marxist, but it combined trade unionism with intellectual social democracy that sought to level class differences. The Trade Union Council emerged as a coalition of trade unions. The British labor movement has always been tough and resentful, but it has softened in recent years by party leaders like Neil Kinnock, John Smith, Tony Blair, Gordon Brown, and Ed Miliband. Many speculate that the left-leaning Jeremy Corbyn indicates a redirection of the party back to its roots.
Reacting to the Loss of Its Status as an Imperialist Power— World War II brought more widespread damage to Britain. Although economic aid from the United States’ Marshall Plan aided economic recovery, the country lost many of its colonies. In most cases, Britain would maintain their relationships with the newly independent countries by helping the become independent. However, many European countries were letting their colonies go because they could no longer maintain them. World War II marks the collapse of imperialism and the global dominance of the United States and the Soviet Union.
Collective Consensus— Britain was a part of the Allies in World War II. Churchill emphasized the importance of putting class conflicts aside. He had started as leader of the Conservative Party, but he ended up leading an all-party coalition government with ministers from both parties. After the war, this collective consensus continued well into the 1960s, with all parties supporting the modern welfare system. Before the war was over, the parties accepted the Beveridge Report, made a social insurance program that made all citizens eligible for health, unemployment, pension, and other benefits. It was supposed to guarantee a subsistence income to every citizen. In 1848, the National Health Service was created under the Labour Party. Even when Conservatives regained control in 1950, these reforms were not repealed. Both the Labour and Conservative Parties shared a broad consensus on the necessity of the welfare state. As a result, Britain became a mixed economy, with the government directing the economy and nationalizing major industries without giving up basic principles of capitalism, like private ownership of property.
Challenges to the Collective Consensus since 1970— Britain began experiencing economic and political turmoil from the late 20th century to the early 21st century, where the Labour Party took a sharp turn left following a serious decline in the economy, endorsing a socialist economy and demanded things for labor unions. The Conservatives sharply turned right, demanding denationalization of industries and a pure market economy. In the 1990s, both parties moderated their stances, and the economy showed some recovery.
Economic Crises of the 1970s— Britain’s economic problems included declining industrial production and international influence, which was exaggerated by the shrinking of the old empire. The impact of the OPEC (Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries) was also devastating, quadrupling oil prices, which caused recession, high unemployment rates, a drop in GNP, and inflation.
Labor unions began demanding higher wages, and crippling strikes took over the nation. The Labour Party lost its membership, and many voters turned to the Liberals, the Conservatives, or other nationalist parties. Conservatives selected Margaret Thatcher as leader, where she was appealing enough to lead Conservatives into power in 1979.
Thatcherism— Margaret Thatcher blamed the weakened economy on the socialist policies set in place. She was further influenced by the Labour Party’s left-leaning politics, dealing power to labor unions. She privatized business and industry, cut back on welfare programs, strengthened national defense, got tough with labor unions, and returned to market force controls. This reflects neoliberalism, or the revival of classic liberal values that support low government regulation, taxation, and social expenditures as well as the protection of individual property rights. She was prime minister for eleven years, and her supporters believed her to be the capable “Iron Lady” while her critics believed that her policies made economic problems worse. Thatcher resigned in 1990, when other Conservative Party leaders challenged her. Her policies redirected Britain’s path to a welfare state, and while her successors moderated her stances, privatization and downsizing of government remained important trends.
The Third Way and the “Big Society”— Moderation again became characteristic of political change. Thatcher’s successor, John Major, at first followed her policies, but later abolished the poll tax, reconciled with the EU, and slowed social cutbacks and privatization. The Conservative Party remained in the majority in 1993, but only by a slim margin. In 1997, the Labour gradually returned to the center with Tony Blair, who promised to create a “New Labour” Party and rule in a “third way”, which was a centrist alternative to the old left Labour Party and the Conservative Party. His popularity slipped when he supported the war in Iraq, and he alienated other European leaders and the public as well. He was replaced in 2007 by Gordon Brown, who had trouble convincing the British to remain loyal to the Labour Party. The 2008 economic recession hit Britain hard, making it more difficult for Brown to control the government.
In 2010, the “third way” was in trouble, and the Labour Party was losing control. There was no party win in 2010, and the Conservatives and Liberal Democrats formed a coalition government with David Cameron, who initiated “Big Society” with grass-roots volunteers and private organizations with no “big government”. In 2015, the Conservative Party regained its majority, and both the Labour Party and the Liberal Democratic Party lost a significant number of seats.