History of Islamic Architecture III: Comprehensive Lecture Notes

Course Overview and Bibliography

• Instructor: Muhammad Junaid Khanzada.
• Course Title: History of Architecture-III.
• Recommended Reference Material:     * 1. Kevin MATTHEWS, The Great Buildings Collection - multimedia CD-ROM of world architecture, The Design Integration Laboratory.     * 2. Banister FLETCHER, Encyclopaedia of World Art and Architecture, New Delhi.     * 3. Henri STIERLIN, Islam: Architecture from the 7th to the 13th centuries, Taschen books, Germany (2002).     * 4. Henri STIERLIN, Turkey: Seljuk and Ottoman Architecture, Taschen books, Germany (2002).     * 5. Sir Thomas ARNOLD and Alfred GUILLAUME, Islamic Art and Architecture, Edited by New Delhi.     * 6. Satish GROVER, Islamic Architecture in India.     * 7. Jose PEREIRA, Islamic Sacred Architecture: A Stylistic History.

Global Religious Context and Demographics

• Global Distribution of Major Religions (Infographic Data):     * Christianity: $33\%$     * Islam: $22\% \text{ to } 24.1\%$     * Hinduism: $15\% \text{ to } 15.1\%$     * Buddhism: $6.9\% \text{ to } 7\%$     * Chinese Folk Religions: $5.7\% \text{ to } 7\%$     * Judaism: $0.2\%$     * Religiously Unaffiliated: $16\%$
• 2015 Population Figures (Pew Research Center):     * Christians: $2.3 \times 10^9$ ($2.3B$).     * Muslims: $1.8 \times 10^9$ ($1.8B$).     * Unaffiliated: $1.2 \times 10^9$ ($1.2B$).     * Hindus: $1.1 \times 10^9$ ($1.1B$).     * Buddhists: $0.5 \times 10^9$ ($0.5B$).     * Folk Religions: $0.4 \times 10^9$ ($0.4B$).     * Other Religions: $0.1 \times 10^9$ ($0.1B$).     * Jews: $0.01 \times 10^9$ ($0.01B$).
• European Religious Landscape (2017 Survey):     * In Western Europe, "Non-practicing Christians" (those attending church less than monthly) represent the largest group at a median of $46\%$.     * Church-attending Christians (attending at least monthly) represent a median of $18\%$.     * The religiously unaffiliated represent a median of $24\%$.     * High church attendance rates: Italy ($40\%$) and Portugal ($35\%$).     * Low church attendance rates: Finland ($9\%$), Sweden ($9\%$), Belgium ($10\%$), and Denmark ($10\%$).

The Five Pillars of Islam: Unifying Devotional Practices

• The Five Pillars are traditional devotional practices considered incumbent on all Muslims, with varying levels of actual observance (median percentages across 39 countries):     * Shahada (Declaration of Faith): Belief in God (Allah) and the Prophet Muhammad ($97\%$ observance).     * Sawm (Fasting): Fasting during daytime in the month of Ramadan ($93\%$ observance). Majorities in 34 of 39 countries fast, including $100\%$\ in Thailand and Cameroon.     * Zakat (Charitable Giving): Obligatory almsgiving ($77\%$ observance).     * Salat (Five Daily Prayers): Periodic prayer ($63\%$ observance).     * Hajj (Pilgrimage to Mecca): Required at least once in a lifetime for those physically and financially able. Observance is low ($9\%$ median) due to distance and logistics. Egypt has an observance rate of $20\%$, while Pakistan and Morocco are at $6\%$, and Indonesia at $3\%$.

Primary Influences on Islamic Architecture

• Geographical Influences:     * The Mahometan religion spread across Persia, Mesopotamia, Syria, Palestine, Egypt, North Africa, and Spain.     * In India, waves of invasion through the north-west frontier led to a succession of capitals in the upper Ganges valley.     * Unlike other styles, Islamic (Saracenic) architecture is a product of a religion that lacks a single country, imposing its style on every diverse land it conquered.
• Etymological Origin:     * "Saracen" was a term used by Greeks and Romans and is believed to derive from the Arabic "Sahra" (desert).
• Geological Influences:     * Local materials dictated construction methods: marble, stone, brick, plaster, and wood were all utilized.     * Domes: Often constructed of brick plastered internally and externally, or stone. They were built in projecting horizontal courses to avoid oblique pressure on supporting walls.     * In Spain: Brick and plaster were primary materials, leading to unique decorative surface treatments.     * In India: Marble and red sandstone allowed for more monumental types, often featuring precious stone inlays.
• Climatic Influences:     * Buildings in eastern or southern climates typically feature small openings and lack large window surfaces or entrances to manage heat.     * India evolved special monumental entrance gateways (subservient to climate and practical needs).
• Religious Influences:     * The faith centers on the Koran and the monotheistic creed: "There is no God but God, and Mahomet is His prophet."     * Independence of various states (Syria, Persia, Egypt, Spain) under independent Caliphs accentuated stylistic differences.     * Aniconism: The prohibition of using natural objects, humans, or animals in decoration led to "Arabesques"—intricate geometric surface patterns, partly influenced by Byzantine art.     * Fatalism (Islam = God's will be done): Influenced the use of ephemeral materials like plaster, though permanent "tomb houses" were common in India and Egypt (e.g., the Taj Mahal).
• Social and Political Influences:     * Military conquests aided the style's global spread.     * Caliphs served as both spiritual and temporal rulers, fusing church and state.     * Status of Women: The isolation of the "harem" influenced house and palace planning, leading to intricate lattice window decorations that allowed interior views without exterior visibility.

Defining Principles and Elements of Style

• Core Concepts:     * Comprises religious and secular buildings from the beginning of Islam to the present.     * Main theme: The infinite power of Allah.     * Space: Negotiation between sacred vs. profane and permanent vs. temporal.     * Geometric Drivers: Nature-based patterns and Sufi elements.     * Environmental Constraints: Forms must address climate and follow function (or vice versa).
• Recurring Stylistic Elements:     * Large Domes and Minarets.     * Large courtyards, often merging with a central praying hall.     * Arabesque and Arabic calligraphy.     * Symmetry and inclusion of ablution fountains.     * Mihrabs (prayer niches).     * Bright colors.     * Interior Focus: Emphasis is placed on interior spaces rather than exterior facades.

Regional Styles and Interpretations

• 1. Persian-Isfahan: Heaviest influence on Islamic architecture; borrowed from the fallen Persian Empire. Features tapered brick pillars and large arcades.
• 2. Moorish-Alhambra (Spain): Noted for the Great Mosque of Cordoba ($785\,AD$) and the Alhambra in Granada. Features foliage motifs, distinct arches, glazed tile work, and central fountains (adapted for ablution).
• 3. Turkistan-Samarkand: Developed by Timur. Locations include Samarkand, Herat, and Kazakhstan. Characterized by axial symmetry, double domes, and brilliant exterior colors. Influenced Mughal design.
• 4. Ottoman-Istanbul: Influenced by Byzantine, Persian, and Syrian styles. Focused on vast inner spaces covered by massive, seemingly weightless domes. Great architect: Mimar Sinan (Suleiman Mosque).
• 5. Fatimid and Mamluk (Cairo):     * Fatimid: Influenced Turkistan architecture. Key structures: Al-Azhar Mosque/University, Al-Hakim Mosque, Al-Jame al-Aqmer.     * Mamluk: Considered the peak of art and architecture patronage.
• 6. Indo-Islamic (Mughal): Fusion of Persian, Arabic, and Hindu styles. Uses marble and precious stones. Examples: Shalimar Gardens, Delhi Fort, Badshahi Masjid, Taj Mahal.
• 7. Sino-Islamic: Example: Grand Mosque of Xi'an. Traditional Chinese forms with high symmetry in buildings but asymmetrical gardens. Materials: wood and concrete blocks.
• 8. Afro-Islamic: Influenced by Muslim merchants. Examples: Grand Mosque of D'jenné, Cairo Citadel, Sankore Mosque.

Islamic Building Typologies

• The Mosque (Masjid):     * The most notable building type; originally an open area (courtyard of Muhammad's house in Medina).     * Sehan (Courtyard): Derived from the Basilica's atrium or Egyptian temple court.     * Ablution Fountain: Symbolic washing area in the courtyard.     * Mihrab and Qibla: The niche (Mihrab) indicates the direction of Mecca (Qibla).     * Mimbar: The pulpit or podium used by the priest for sermons.     * Minaret: Tower for the Muezzin's call to prayer; developed from Christian bell towers.
• Tombs:     * Gumu: For scholars and historic figures.     * Gongbei (Qubba): For the Jiaozhu (Sufi leader).     * Mazha: Sufi tombs in Xinjiang.     * Huimingongmu: Common Muslim graveyards.     * Burial Orientation: Deceased are buried with heads toward the north and faces turned right toward Mecca.
• Forts: Fortified castles for military use or prisons (e.g., Arad Fort in Bahrain).
• Civil Structures:     * Islamic Homes: Heavily decorated according to religious beliefs.     * Hospitals: Divided into inpatient and outpatient departments (often doubled as Madrassas).

Historical Development Milestones

• Masjid-e-Quba: The first mosque, built in $622\,CE$ in Medina, Saudi Arabia.
• Global Count: Currently approximately $3.6 \times 10^6$ ($36\,lacs$) mosques worldwide.
• The Great Mosque of Mecca (Al-Haram):     * Oldest and largest in the world; current capacity is $1.5 \times 10^6$ ($1.5m$) worshippers.     * Initial form: Open area surrounding the Black Stone (Kaaba) with wooden columns.     * Renovations: Wooden floors replaced with marble; minarets added.     * Ottoman additions: Calligraphy-decorated roofs and significant expansions to accommodate pilgrimages.