Chapter 5 Study Guide: Essential Study Skills, 8e

MEMORY PROCESSES AND STORAGE CENTERS

Understanding basic memory processes will equip you with essential information to help you increase your learning potential and improve your approach to learning.
Meta-cognition is the process of understanding what you learn, how you need to learn, and what strategies or techniques would be the most effective or the best matched to the learning task.

A. Three Key Memory Processes

Strengthening memory involves a myriad of cognitive processes and strategies.
Three basic memory processes include:
- Memory Encoding: the process of attaching special memory codes to information so that short-term memory can process, categorize, and store it for later use and retrieval.
- Memory Storage: the process of holding or maintaining coded information for a given period of time.
- Memory Retrieval: the process of recognizing, pulling back into use, or recovering stored information from memory.

B. Three Memory Storage Centers

The three memory storage centers include:
- Sensory memory;
- Short-term memory; and
- Long-term memory.
Instead of being processed through the first two memory centers, information may be lost or forgotten from memory.

1. Sensory Input and Sensory Memory

Sensory Input refers to all sensory data from the physical world that we receive through our five senses.
Sensory memory is a(n) temporary storage center that receives and holds sensory input for 1 or 2 seconds.
Selective attention is the process of focusing on or attending to specific stimuli that are important to process further.
Focused attention determines the fate of sensory input after it enters the sensory memory center.

2. Short-Term Memory

Short-term memory is a(n) temporary storage center in working memory that receives information from the sensory center and briefly holds information for further processing or manipulation.
Short-term memory has two significant limitations:
- Limited duration: STM holds stimuli for 20 seconds or less.
- Limited capacity: STM holds and processes an average of 7 items or chunks of information at one time.

3. Encoding

Encoding is the process of attaching specific codes to stimuli so long-term memory can process, categorize, and store them for later use and retrieval.
If information is not encoded, it is forgotten, overwritten, or fades away.

4. Long-Term Memory

Long-term memory is a(n) permanent storage center that holds chunks of information received from working memory.
LTM has unlimited capacity; it never runs out of storage space.
Encoded information is stored in LTM, but is not always accessible.
Schemas are sets of memories or clusters of related information that form large frameworks to which other related ideas, facts, and details can be attached.
The number of schemas in a person’s memory system is dynamic.

2. Selective Attention Processes

Selective attention is the process of focusing on or attending to specific important stimuli that are important to process further.
Failure to use selective attention to “grab hold” of stimuli to move them forward results in stimuli simply disappearing—dropping out, getting overlooked, or being forgotten.
Ignored stimuli follow the automatic route—they fade out or get forgotten.
Intrusive thoughts take up memory resources that memory operations need. The result is divided attention and a disruption in the process of focusing attention on information you intend to process.

3. Memory Process 1: Attention

Narrow your focus to only the stimuli you wish to process further.
See your focus of attention as a(n) filter that screens out irrelevant stimuli, sounds, people, and other distractions that may interfere with working on the important information to process.

4. Encoding Processes

Four kinds of encoding processes are visual, auditory, kinesthetic, and semantic.
Semantic encoding, also called conceptual coding, processes the general meaning of basic knowledge. Semantic memories form a mental repository of general knowledge you have learned over the years.
Your semantic memory is a(n) network that you have created based on your experiences.

5. Memory Process 2: Working with Information

Be creative and use a(n) variety of strategies to hold information in your memory for a longer time.

6. Short-Term Memory Processes

You need to attend to or act upon information quickly when it first enters your short-term memory.
You have up to 20 seconds to respond to or do something with stimuli.

7. Memory Process 3: Active Engagement

You need to consciously work with information to prevent it from getting lost or discarded.
Choose some form of engagement to work with incoming stimuli.
In addition to limited duration, STM has a limited capacity.
- A(n) item of information may be as small as words or phrases, or it may involve larger images or concepts.
- The size of chunks of information will vary depending on your familiarity with the material.
- If there are too many items in what you are trying to learn, chunking them or breaking the list of items into smaller units will be more effective.

8. Memory Process 4: Memory Span

The Miller's Law 7 ± 2 theory states that short-term memory span is 7 items plus or minus 2 items.

9. Processes to Work with Schemas

The number of schemas in a person’s memory system is adaptable.
Information in your schemes affects how you understand and process new information.

10. Memory Process 5: Locating Information in LTM

To locate information in LTM, you need to retrieve and use it and make connections or associations to existing schemas.
You can ask questions and create study notes or categories with listed details to show relationships among kinds and types of information.

11. Processes for Accessing Long-Term Memory

Long-term memory is a(n) permanent storage center for information.
Processes that move information to and from long-term memory occur with variable speed.

THE INFORMATION PROCESSING MODEL WITH WORKING MEMORY

The Information Processing Model is a(n) theoretical model that consists of three memory centers: sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory.
A large area called working memory includes short-term memory.
Output demonstrates that learning has taken place.

A. Working Memory

Working memory refers to all cognitive processes that occur in our active mind.
Anything that you are aware of consciously or subconsciously occurs in working memory.
Working memory searches for related information in LTM, retrieves it, and brings that information back into your active mind.
All in-depth analysis and processing take place in working memory.

B. Output

Output is some form of demonstration, expression, or performance that shows learning has taken place.
Output may include performance tasks or recognition tasks.
Recognition tasks are a form of output that demonstrates your ability to identify specific information when some kind of prompt or clue is provided.
Recall tasks are a form of output that demonstrates your ability to retrieve specific information or details stored in your LTM when no cues or reminders are provided.
In general, recall tasks are more difficult to perform than are recognition tasks.

III. PROCESSES IN WORKING MEMORY

A. Attitude, Interest, and Intention

Factual knowledge is explicit knowledge.
Procedural knowledge is implicit knowledge.

1. Memory Process 6: Rehearsal Strategies

Rehearsal strategies for factual information involve working with factual information in active ways, which may involve revising the information, creating visual aids, using mnemonics, summarizing information, or practicing with yourself or a partner.
Rehearsal strategies for process information emphasize repeating the original process multiple times over a period of several days or longer until the process becomes automatic.
The goal for working with procedural knowledge is to increase efficiency and automaticity.

2. Elaborative Rehearsal

Elaborative rehearsal, also called meaningful rehearsal, is the process of thinking about, pondering or working with, and encoding information in creative ways.
Elaborative rehearsal forces you to move beyond shallow memory.
Shallow memory is the process of using rote memorization to learn information in the exact form in which it was presented.
Make a concerted effort to go beyond shallow memory by attaching meaning and explanations to the information.

3. Memory Process 7: Reflection

Take time to reflect on information you are studying.

4. Multisensory Strategies

Multisensory strategies frequently use the two processes of visualization and explanation.
Visualization is the process of using visual encoding to make images or pictures in your mind.
Visualizing creates mental cues to imprint in long-term memory.
Explanation is the process of explaining information clearly, out loud in your own words, and in complete sentences without referring to external materials.

5. Memory Process 8: Multi-Sensory Engagement

Multisensory strategies combine two or more sensory channels to enhance memory.
Ask questions, paraphrase, and recite frequently.
Create rhymes, acronyms, or songs to create auditory codes.
Rehearse mental images to create a strong imprint in LTM.
Use the Look-Away Technique, the See-Say-Do strategy, and flashcards to discuss, recite, and sort information into categories.

6. Selectivity

Selectivity is the process of identifying and separating key ideas and important details from a larger set of information.
Working memory has its limitations and can become overloaded when too much information enters it too quickly.
Use selectivity to decide what to highlight in a chapter, read in a textbook, write in your notes, and study for an exam.
Selectivity also involves identifying what information you can forget.

7. Memory Process 9: Focus

Focus your attention on the information that is relevant and important.
Do not try to memorize unrelated single facts.

8. Self-Quizzing and Feedback

Self-quizzing and feedback provide you with insights that your working memory is active; plus, they slow down the learning process so you do not attempt to memorize too much information too quickly through working memory.
Self-quizzing is the process of testing yourself so you can receive feedback about the accuracy and completeness of your learning.
Self-assessment is the process of verifying how well and fully you have or have not learned specific information.
Accurate feedback is a response that shows you accurately recall specific information.
Incomplete feedback is a response that shows you have misunderstood or partially understood specific information.

9. Memory Process 10: Timely Feedback

Get feedback about the accuracy of your learning during all stages of learning: during the beginning stages, during medium stages, and during final stages.
Use timely or constructive feedback to adjust your review materials and study techniques.

10. Associations and Retrieval Cues

Association is the process of linking together two or more items or pieces of information to process into long-term memory.
Long-term memory is organized around themes and connections.
Semantic associations are related items linked together in working memory and sent to long-term memory to be encoded.
Retrieval cues are forms of information used to conduct memory searches to locate information stored in long-term memory.

11. Memory Process 11: Strengthening Connections

Creating associations and retrieval cues holds new information active in your working memory to provide time to begin encoding.
Keep information in LTM active and engaged by rehearsing and using retrieval cues on an ongoing basis.
With consistent practice, you will be able to increase the efficacy and speed of locating and recalling information from LTM to demonstrate learning.

12. Rehearsal Time and Pace

Learning to monitor your intake speed and use practice, spaced repetition, or distributed practice gives your mind time to integrate and comprehend what you are studying.
Persistence is a process of continuing to practice or rehearse information even after you feel you have learned the information.
Memory Process 12: Practice-Hardening
As you learn more rehearsal strategies, the importance of giving yourself enough time to use the strategies effectively increases.