SOL Brain Dump Notes

Scientific Investigation/Experimental Design

  • Scientific method: question → hypothesis → experiment → data → conclusion

  • Independent variable: what you change

  • Dependent variable: what you measure

  • Constants: things kept the same

  • Control group vs. experimental group

  • Data types: qualitative vs. quantitative

  • Graphing: IV on x-axis, DV on y-axis

  • Repetition = reliability

  • Valid conclusion = based on data

Biochemistrybbb

  • Macromolecules:

    • Carbohydrates – monosaccharides – short-term energy storage – sugars, starches

    • Lipids – fatty acids – fats, oils,waxes

    • Proteins – provides structure, enzymes – amino acids

    • Nucleic acids – - genetic info – DNA & RNA

  • Enzymes:

    • Lower activation energy

    • Affected by pH and temperature

    • Lock-and-key model (each enzyme works at specific site)

  • Water:

    • Polar molecule: Oxygen is slightly negative, hydrogen is slightly positive

    • Cohesion & adhesion

    • High specific heat

    • Universal solvent: can dissolve into many substances

    • Hydrogen bond: Causes high cohesion, surface tension, and capillary action.

Cells & Cell Transport

  • Prokaryotes (no nucleus) vs. Eukaryotes (nucleus)

  • Organelles:

    • Nucleus, mitochondria, chloroplast, ribosome, ER, Golgi, vacuole, lysosome

  • Cell membrane = phospholipid bilayer

  • Passive transport:

    • Diffusion, osmosis, facilitated diffusion (Small molecules water based, large molecules high to low energy)

    • No energy needed

  • Active trans/0port:

    • Requires energy (ATP)

    • Endocytosis: Cell takes in large materials by engulfing them.

    • Exocytosis: Cell releases large materials out using vesicles.

    • Protein Pumps: Use energy to move molecules across the membrane.

  • Hypotonic → cell swells

  • Hypertonic → cell shrinks

  • Isotonic → no change

Cellular Respiration & Photosynthesis

  • Photosynthesis:

    • Equation: CO2+H2O+sunlight→C6H12O6+O2CO₂ + H₂O + sunlight → C₆H₁₂O₆ + O₂

    • Occurs in chloroplast

    • Light-dependent & light-independent (Calvin Cycle)

  • Cellular Respiration:

    • Equation: C6H12O6+O2→CO2+H2O+ATPC₆H₁₂O₆ + O₂ → CO₂ + H₂O + ATP

    • Occurs in mitochondria

    • Aerobic = uses oxygen

    • Anaerobic = no oxygen → lactic acid/alcohol fermentation

    • 36-38 ATP from aerobic respiration

DNA & Protein Synthesis

  • DNA: double helix, A-T & C-G

  • RNA: single strand, A-U & C-G

  • DNA replication: semi-conservative, in nucleus

  • Protein synthesis:

    • Transcription (nucleus): DNA → mRNA

    • Translation (ribosome): mRNA → protein (via tRNA + amino acids)

  • Codon = 3 mRNA bases

  • Mutation = change in DNA → can affect protein

    • Types: substitution, insertion, deletion

Cell Cycle, Mitosis & Meiosis

  • Cell Cycle: Interphase (G1, S, G2) → M phase

  • Mitosis: division of somatic cells (2 identical diploid cells)

    • PMAT: Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase

  • Meiosis: division of gametes (4 unique haploid cells)

    • Increases genetic variation

    • Crossing over in Prophase I

  • Cancer = uncontrolled cell division

Genetics

  • DNA → gene → protein → trait

  • Alleles: dominant (A) vs. recessive (a)

  • Homozygous = same alleles (AA or aa)

  • Heterozygous = different alleles (Aa)

  • Punnett squares: predict offspring genotypes

  • Genotype = genetic makeup

  • Phenotype = physical trait

  • Incomplete dominance: blend (red + white = pink)

  • Codominance: both show (black + white = speckled)

  • Sex-linked traits (X-linked): more common in males

  • Pedigrees: track traits in families

Ecology

  • Levels: organism → population → community → ecosystem → biome → biosphere

  • Food chain/web:

    • Producers → consumers (primary, secondary, etc.)

    • Arrows show flow of energy

  • Energy pyramid: 10% rule

  • Symbiosis:

    • Mutualism (+/+), commensalism (+/0), parasitism (+/–)

  • Biogeochemical cycles: water, carbon, nitrogen

  • Carrying capacity = max population environment can support

  • Limiting factors: food, water, space, etc.

  • Biodiversity = ecosystem stability

Evolution

  • Natural selection: survival of the fittest

  • Adaptation = inherited trait for survival

  • Variation + competition = evolution

  • Fossil evidence, comparative anatomy, DNA similarities

  • Homologous structures = same structure, different function

  • Vestigial structures = leftover organs

  • Speciation = formation of new species

  • Genetic drift, gene flow, mutation → changes in gene pool

Classification

  • Taxonomy = science of classifying organisms

  • Levels: Domain, Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, Species (Dear King Philip Came Over For Good Soup)

  • Binomial nomenclature = Genus + species (italicized/underlined)

  • 3 Domains: Bacteria, Archaea, Eukarya

  • 6 Kingdoms: Animalia, Plantae, Fungi, Protista, Eubacteria, Archaebacteria

    Animal= motile

    Plant = primarily non-motile, capable of photosynthesis

  • Fungi = non-motile, decomposers, absorb nutrients

  • Protista = diverse group, some motile, some non-motile

  • Bacteria = unicellular, prokaryotic organisms, some motile through flagella.

  • Archaebacteria= harsh environments

  • Dichotomous key = tool to identify organisms