Summary of Learning Principles

Learning

  • Definition: A relatively permanent change in behavior due to experience (nurture).

Classical Conditioning

  • Definition: Learning that occurs when two stimuli are presented together, pairing an unconditioned stimulus with a neutral stimulus until it elicits a similar response.
  • Key Terms:
    • Stimulus: Change in the environment causing a response.
    • Neutral Stimulus (NS): Initially elicits no response.
    • Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS or US): Automatically brings about the unconditioned response.
    • Unconditioned Response (UCR or UR): Automatic reaction to UCS.
    • Conditioned Stimulus (CS): Neutral stimulus paired with UCS, elicits conditioned response.
    • Conditioned Response (CR): Learned response to the CS.
  • Processes:
    • Extinction: Repeated CS presentation without UCS leads to weakened CR.
    • Spontaneous Recovery: Temporary reappearance of CR after extinction without training.
    • Generalization: Stimuli similar to CS elicit CR without training.
    • Discrimination: Ability to differentiate stimuli, only CS elicits CR.
    • Higher-Order Conditioning: Well-learned CS paired with NS to produce CR to NS.
    • Aversive Conditioning: Learning involving unpleasant stimuli; includes avoidance and escape behaviors.

Instrumental Learning

  • Definition: Associative learning where behavior probability changes based on consequences.
  • Law of Effect: Positive consequences strengthen behaviors; negative consequences weaken them.

Operant Conditioning

  • Definition: Learning through voluntary behavior and its consequences.
  • Key Concepts:
    • Positive Reinforcement: Rewarding consequence increases behavior probability.
    • Primary Reinforcer: Biologically important, naturally rewarding.
    • Secondary Reinforcer: Rewarding due to association with primary reinforcer.
    • Generalized Reinforcer: Associated with multiple primary reinforcers.
    • Premack Principle: More probable behavior reinforces less probable one.
    • Negative Reinforcement: Removing aversive consequence increases behavior probability (escape and avoidance).
    • Punishment: Aversive consequence decreases behavior probability.
    • Omission Training: Removing rewarding consequence decreases behavior probability.
  • Processes
    • Shaping: Reinforcing successive approximations to desired behavior.
    • Chaining: Reinforcing a sequence of behaviors.

Reinforcement Schedules

  • Continuous Reinforcement: Reinforcement after every behavior; best for acquisition.
  • Partial Reinforcement: Occasional reinforcement; more resistant to extinction.
    • Fixed Ratio: Reinforcement after a specific number of responses.
    • Fixed Interval: Reinforcement after a specific time interval.
    • Variable Ratio: Reinforcement after random number of responses (around an average).
    • Variable Interval: Reinforcement after random time interval (around an average).
  • Superstitious Behaviors: Result from unintended reinforcement.

Applications and Biological Considerations

  • Behavior Modification: Applying behavioral approach to solve problems.
  • Token Economy: Using secondary reinforcers to increase appropriate behavior.
  • (Biological) Preparedness: Predisposition to learn survival-related behaviors.
  • Instinctive Drift: Conditioned response moves toward natural behavior.

Cognitive Perspectives

  • Cognitive Interpretation: Focuses on mental processes rather than just associations.
  • Contingency Theory (Rescorla): Key to classical conditioning is how well the CS predicts the UCS.
  • Latent learning: Learning in the absence of rewards.
  • Insight: Sudden solution to a problem.
  • Observational Learning: Learning by watching a model's behavior.