Great Society

The Great Society

Context and Overview

  • Quote by Lyndon B. Johnson: The Great Society rests on abundance and liberty for all. It demands an end to poverty and racial injustice, to which we are totally committed in our time. (Commencement Address at the University of Michigan, May 1964)

Learning Objectives

  1. Explain the causes and effects of continuing policy debates about the role of the federal government over time.
  2. Explain the contributions and changes in immigration patterns over time.

The Ascendance of Lyndon B. Johnson

  • Timeline: Two hours after the assassination of President Kennedy, Lyndon Johnson took the presidential oath aboard a plane in Dallas.
  • Background: Born in rural west Texas, Johnson was a graduate of a lesser-known teacher’s college. Compared to the wealthy, Harvard-educated Kennedy, he appeared unsophisticated.
  • Political Career: Johnson was a skilled politician with a background as a Roosevelt Democrat during the Great Depression.
  • Vision: He aimed to expand upon the social reforms initiated by the New Deal, coining his agenda as the “Great Society.”
  • Legislative Skills: With nearly 30 years in Congress, Johnson had learned how to effectively work with legislative bodies to enact change.

The War on Poverty

  • Influence of "The Other America": Published in 1962 by Michael Harrington, the book brought national attention to the 40 million Americans living in poverty.
  • Johnson's Response: In 1964, Johnson declared an “unconditional war on poverty.”
  • Legislative Support: The Democratic Congress provided broad support for Johnson’s initiatives, resulting in the establishment of the Office of Economic Opportunity (OEO) with a billion-dollar budget.
  • OEO Programs: The OEO initiated various self-help programs for the impoverished, including:
    • Head Start: A program targeting preschool education.
    • Job Corps: Vocational education for those in need of employment training.
    • Literacy Programs: Assistance aimed at improving reading and writing skills.
    • Legal Services: Support for legal aid to the poor.
    • Community Action Program: Controversial program enabling the poor to run their own local antipoverty initiatives.

The 1964 Election

  • Johnson's Campaign: Johnson and his running mate, Senator Hubert Humphrey, ran on a liberal agenda during the election.
  • Opposition: The Republicans nominated Senator Barry Goldwater, a staunch conservative advocating for the end of the welfare state, including Social Security and the Tennessee Valley Authority.
  • Democratic Strategy: A campaign ad depicted Goldwater as a dangerous extremist potentially sparking nuclear war.
  • Election Outcome: Johnson won a landslide victory, receiving 61% of the popular vote, surpassing FDR’s 1936 landslide.
  • Congressional Control: The Democratic Party secured more than a two-thirds majority in both houses of Congress, enabling the passage of major social and economic reforms.

Great Society Reforms

  • Legislative Achievements (1963-1966): Johnson's agenda included numerous significant reforms that impacted U.S. society, listed as follows:
    • Food Stamp Act (1964): Expanded federal assistance for low-income individuals to purchase food.
    • National Foundation on the Arts and Humanities (1965): Provided federal funding for artistic and scholarly endeavors.
    • Medicare (1965): Implemented health insurance for Americans aged 65 and older.
    • Medicaid (1965): Allocated federal funds to states for medical care for the poor and disabled.
    • Elementary and Secondary Education Act (1965): Disbursed federal funds to impoverished school districts and for special education programs.
    • Higher Education Act (1965): Offered federal scholarships for postsecondary education.
    • Immigration Act (1965): Abolished discriminatory quotas based on national origins.
    • Child Nutrition Act (1966): Included breakfast in the school lunch program.
  • Further Initiatives: Increased funding for mass transit, public housing, crime prevention, and the establishment of new cabinet departments:
    • Department of Transportation (DOT)
    • Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD)
  • Safety Regulations: Following Ralph Nader’s book "Unsafe at Any Speed" (1965), the government enacted automobile safety regulations, saving numerous lives. Clean air and water laws were prompted in part by Rachel Carson's "Silent Spring" (1962).
  • Environmental Initiatives: The Beautify America campaign led by Lady Bird Johnson resulted in the Highway Beautification Act, aiming to enhance environmental aesthetics by prohibiting billboards on federal highways.

Criticism and Support of the Great Society

  • Critics' Arguments: Opponents of the Great Society asserted that:
    • The promises to eradicate poverty were unrealistic.
    • It created a centralized welfare state perceived as inefficient and costly.
  • Supporters' Position: Advocates contended that these programs provided essential support to millions of marginalized Americans, including the poor, disabled, and elderly.
  • Impact of Vietnam War: Johnson’s escalation of the war in Vietnam's led to increased federal spending, raising both taxes and inflation, which jeopardized his domestic achievements.

Changes in Immigration Patterns

  • Pre-1960s Immigration: Most immigrants arrived from Europe and Canada.
  • Shift by 1980s: By this time, 47% of immigrants were from Latin America, 37% from Asia, and less than 13% from Europe and Canada.
  • Causes: This swift change resulted partly from the influx of refugees from Cuba and Vietnam post-Communist takeovers.
  • Immigration Act of 1965: This significant legislation dismantled ethnic quotas from the 1920s that favored Europeans and opened immigration from all regions, resulting in a steep increase in legal immigration.
    • 1970s Immigration Rate: Approximately 400,000 immigrants entered per year compared to spikes exceeding 1,000,000 between 1990 and 2020.
  • Undocumented Immigration: By the mid-1970s, nearly 12 million undocumented foreigners were present in the U.S.
    • Immigration Reform and Control Act (1986): This act penalized employers who hired undocumented workers while offering amnesty to immigrants who arrived before 1982.
    • Public Sentiment: Many Americans felt the nation had lost control over immigration policies.

Political Impact of the Great Society

  • Civil Rights Legislation: Johnson’s Great Society programs included strong measures to end racial discrimination, detailed in Topic 8.10.
  • Political Risks: Johnson anticipated a loss of Southern support for the Democratic Party due to liberal social policies.
  • Culmination of Federal Action: The mid-1960s marked the pinnacle for the federal government’s role in promoting racial equality domestically.
  • Resurgence of Conservatism: Subsequent conservative movements aimed to dismantle the Great Society legislation.

Reflect on the Learning Objectives

  1. Causes and Effects of the War on Poverty and the Great Society Programs:
    • Causes: Michael Harrington’s advocacy, the commitment to social reform.
    • Effects: Establishment of federal programs, increased government involvement in the economy and social issues.
  2. Impacts of the Immigration Act of 1965:
    • Resulted in diversified immigration patterns, increased legal immigration from non-European countries, and a documentation of demographic shifts in the U.S. population.

Key Terms by Theme

  • Johnson
  • Great Society
  • The Other America
  • Michael Harrington
  • War on Poverty
  • Barry Goldwater
  • National Foundation on the Arts and Humanities
  • Medicare
  • Medicaid
  • Elementary and Secondary Education Act
  • Department of Transportation (DOT)
  • Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD)
  • Ralph Nader
  • Unsafe at Any Speed
  • Rachel Carson
  • Silent Spring
  • Beautify America
  • Immigration Act of 1965