AP Euro Exam Study Guide Notes
Unit 1: Renaissance and Exploration (c.1450-c.1648)
- Renaissance = rebirth.
- Roman and Greek texts were recovered, leading to the Renaissance.
- Islamic scholars translated these texts and had contacts with Europeans during the Crusades.
- Petrarch laid the groundwork for the Renaissance.
- Humanism: Emphasized the unlimited potential of human beings.
- Individualism: Focus on the triumph of the individual.
- Petrarch admired Cicero and thought his Latin compositions should be the model for the Latin language.
- Philology: The study of the history and development of languages.
- Lorenzo Valla: In 1440, he demonstrated that a document from the RCC was a forgery using philology.
- Shift from religious to secular authority.
- More scientific methods of inquiry.
- Shift from communal to individualistic thinking.
- Printing Press: Allowed ideas to spread quickly.
- Education:
- Humanities: History, philosophy, all based on classical texts.
- Aimed to expand the humanity and potential of human beings.
- Baldassare Castiglione: The Courtier = guide for how an educated young man should behave in society.
- Italian city-states:
- Self-governing kingdoms.
- Civic humanism: Educated men should be engaged in politics.
- Leonardo Bruni: Advocated republicanism of ancient Rome = best, enlightened individual rule.
- Niccolo Machiavelli: The Prince = the basic function of a ruler is to maintain power at all costs.
- There is a limit to the tyranny = enlightened balance.
Art
- Naturalism: More realistic portrayal of the world as it was.
- Linear perspective.
- Themes included religious, personal, political, and classical subjects.
- Michelangelo: David sculpture.
- Ideal of the perfect man.
- Raphael: The School of Athens.
- Classical themes.
- Linear perspective.
- Brunelleschi: Church of San Lorenzo of Florence.
- Patronized by wealthy individuals, rulers, and popes to enhance their public prestige.
Northern Renaissance
- Developed a more Christian focus.
- Christian humanism: Humanist thought blended with scriptural authority.
- Erasmus: Education should include classics and the Bible.
- In Praise of Folly: Sought to undermine political and social institutions.
- Art:
- Peter Brugel the Elder: “The Peasant Wedding”.
- Picturing ordinary people.
- Naturalism.
- Rembrandt: Dutch, used light and shade.
- Inhabit the narrative of scripture.
Printing Press
- Gutenberg.
- Mass printing.
- Gutenberg Bible (1456).
- Ideas spread rapidly.
- Protestant Reformation used it as a tool.
- Vernacular Literature: Literature in the language of the people.
New Monarchies
- England:
- Henry VII (8th) of England.
- Opposed Protestant Reformation, named “Defender of the Faith”.
- Asked pope for annulment (daughter of Catholic Spain); Ferdinand and Isabella pressured the pope to say no.
- Married Anne Boleyn.
- Henry denounced the Pope and made himself the head of the Church of England.
- Treason Act: Death if you didn't recognize the Church of England.
- Elizabeth I: Steered England back to Anglicanism after her sister Mary (Bloody Mary) and ended the persecution of dissenters.
- Established monopolies on tax collection, employed military force, determining religion
- Spain:
- Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain.
- Ferdinand → Aragon, Isabella → Castile.
- Raised revenue through taxes.
- Elaborate bureaucracy.
- Reconquista drove out Muslims and Jews from the Iberian Peninsula and established Catholicism as the official religion of Spain.
- France:
- Concordat of Bologna 1516: Agreement between King Francis I and Pope Leo X.
- Pope got the right to collect income from the FCC.
- Francis retained the right to appoint FCC leaders.
- Restricting their right to communicate directly w/ pope.
- Peace of Augsburg 1555: Gave individual leaders the right to decide if their subjects would be Catholic of Lutheran.
- Means of consolidating power.
- Merchants and bankers are also gaining influence:
- Medici Family: Banking industry in Italy.
- Fugger Family: Banking industry in Germany.
- Exercise increased political power
Age of Exploration
- Why? GOLD, GOD, GLORY.
- Jesuit Missionaries.
- Mercantilism: A system that argued there was a finite amount of wealth in the world measured in gold and silver.
- EX: Jean-Baptiste Colbert: Countries wealth should serve the state.
- Create everything needed so they didn't have to import anything
- Cartography, compass, new ships, astrolabe.
- Portugal:
- Posts around the coast of Africa.
- Indian Ocean trade.
- Spain:
- Columbus landed in the Bahamas.
- France:
- Dutch:
- Trading in Southeast Asia.
- Tensions:
- 1) Diplomacy
- Treaty of Tordesillas 1494
- Pope Alexander; Spain and Portugal divide.
- 2) War.
- At stake = balance of power.
The Columbian Exchange
- Exchange between the Old World and the New World.
- 1) Disease (smallpox).
- 2) Food
- America to Europe: corn, potatoes.
- Europe to Americas: grains.
- 3) Animals
- 4) Minerals
- Gold and silver.
- Wealthy $.
- 5) People
- Transatlantic slave trade.
- Western Europe:
- Economic growth.
- Feudalism: Peasants worked on the land of nobles.
- Early Capitalism
- Encomienda System: Leading men (encomenderos) were granted a portion of land; natives who lived there became the unpaid laborers who did the farming or mining.
The Commercial Revolution
- Greater increase in global commerce.
- Money Economy: Goods, services, and wages are now made with cash instead of gold and silver.
- Rise of great banking centers in Genoa, Amsterdam, and London occurred due to the rise of the money economy.
- Double Entry Bookkeeping: Detailed account kept of all debits and credits (indicated that lots of money was being handled).
- Joint Stock Company: Investors bought stock in a company’s profits, raising lots of capital.
- Dutch East India Company 1602.
- In local communities, feudalism still remained.
- Serfs: Worked the land.
- Manor: Agricultural estate.
- Subsistence agriculture: The concept of just growing what one needs to subsist (survive).
- Soil exhaustion: Solution = crop rotation.
- 2 field system, 3 field system.
- Price Revolution caused commercial revolution → influx of gold and silver, money, population, price of food rises.
- Inflation.
- Commercialization of agriculture.
- Large landowners and capitalist investors began to see the open field system as wasteful = desired to increase available land so that crop yields would increase.
- Legislation passed in England = allowed investors to purchase public land.
- The Commons: A critical piece of land for the peasantry, only place they could bring their livestock to graze.
- Enclosure movement: Land that was previously available to all was being enclosed, benefited landowners, disrupted peasantry life (poverty).
- Migration movement of landless poor = urbanization.
- RCC dominated Western Europe.
- 1500s → wealth that led to corruption…
- Simony = buying and selling of church offices.
- Nepotism = appointing of family and friends to offices.
- Indulgences = buying and selling indulgences (salvation).
- Martin Luther = studying new testament (taught that a person’s salvation was by grace alone through faith).
- Sola fide (salvation is faith alone).
- Contrasted w/ church who thought that salvation was won by good works or through indulgences.
- Sola Scriptura.
- Priesthood of ALL believers (vernacular bible).
- 95 Theses 1517 → criticizing the church, calling them to reform.
- Printing press spread it.
- Church announces him a heretic.
- Diet of Worms → church officials and Charles V put Luther on trial.
- Demanded he recant.
- Refused → excommunicated.
- Edict of Worms 1521 → Charles V declares him an outlaw.
- Burns all his books.
- Goes into hiding w/ help of Prince Fredrich of Saxony.
- John Clavin (Switzerland): A follower of Luther.
- 1) Predestinations → god had already decided who would be saved and who would not.
- 2) Elect → chosen for salvation.
- Salvation led to good works.
- Faith = Salvation → good works.
- Sign might be wealth accumulation.
- Calvin’s Geneva = Created a welfare state in Geneva.
- State and church so intertwined.
- Bible = law (Theocracy).
- The Institutes of the Christian Religion → complete reformation doctrines.
- Anabaptists
- Calvin/Luther → infants need to be baptized.
- Baptism cannot be administered to infants because only adults could truly affirm that they were believers.
- Absolute separation of church and state.
Wars of Religion
- France:
- 1st half of the 1500s most French ppl were catholic → 1500s protestantism gained popularity.
- Huguenots → half of nobles converted, seeking recognition and rights from the crown.
- 1560→ Chalres IX takes the throne but he was only 11.
- His mom Catherine de Medici is running the gov, wanted to purge france of the huguenots.
- Massacre of Vasey 1562 (led by the Bourbon family).
- 1572 → Charles IX sister marries Bourbon Henry of Navarre who was a Huguenot.
- Catherine organized the St. Bartholomew’s Day Massacre (at their wedding).
- 10-20,000 protestants were killed.
- War of the 3 Henrys: starting in 1587.
- 3 henrys wanted the French throne.
- Henry III (Catholic, king @ that time) = deeply unpopular.
- Henry of Navarre (Huegenot, leader of the bourbon family).
- Henry of Guise (catholic, wanted only catholics to rule france).
- Henry of Navarre takes the throne as Henry IV.
- Edict of Nantes 1598 → officially est. France as catholic while also providing religious toleration for Huguenots.
- HRE:
- 30 Yrs War → last major war of protestant reformation.
- CONTEXT: Peace of Augsburg 1555 → cuius regio, eius religio; rulers could decide between catholicism or lutheranism
- Charles V did this to end religious tensions and maintain the power of the state.
- 1618 calvinist leader named Fredrick I challenged the catholic absolutism of the HRE EMperor Ferdinand the 2nd.
- Broke the peace of Augsburg by shutting down the lutheran churches in bohemia.
- Defenestration of Prague → threw catholic officials out the window.
- (SPARKED WAR!!!)
- Stages:
- 1) Bohemian Stage (1618-1625)
- Small localized war in Bohemia between the Protestant Union and the Catholic League.
- 2) Danish Phase (1625-1630)
- King of denmark (protestant) got in on the action and led attacks against the catholics.
- 3) Swedish Phase (1630-1635)
- Marks the point @ which the war extended beyond the borders of the HRE and became a proper European War.
- King Gustavus Adolphus: brilliant strategist, org. the protestant cause, scored major victories.
- Funds Cardinal Richelieu of France.
- Wait a sec…isn’t F catholic?????
- 30 yrs war is evolving from a purely religious conflict to a more political one
- French LOATHED the habsburgs saw any chance to diminish their power.
- French Phase (1635-1648)
- Used this war as an excuse to fight w/ the habsburgs in spain in order to assure that they wouldn't regain influence.
- Spain’s Religious Wars:
- The Habsburgs → super catholic.
- CONTEXT: in 1453 ottomans had completed their conquest of the byzantine empire, capturing constantinople, wanted to keep expanding into Europe but were stopped by spain.
- Phillip II comes to power in 1556.
- Upset ab christianity losing its hype → dad Chalres V = “defender of the faith”, wanted to uphold that.
- Hated protestants.
- Netherlands
- growing calvinist sentiments
- Philip II unleashed targeted persecution on them.
- Duke of alba’s “Council of Troubles”.
- William of Orange led dutch calvinist
- 1581 → declared themselves (the north) independent of spain.
- England
- Elizabeth I supported protestants & england had been messing w/ spain’s merchant ships
- Philip sent the Spanish Armada to invade england
- English Navy beat them
- Catholcisim loses and protestantism prevails
- Peace of Westphalia 1648 → ended 30 yrs war and ALL of europe's religious wars
- Amended the Aubs. Agreement to include calvinism, started HRE decline
- Ended the medieval idea of universal christendom
- Church was forever divided
- Also known as a counter reformation → responding to the criticism
- Also sought to reform bc they are losing followers (maintain power)
- Pope Paul III est. Roman Inquisition 1542 → had the authority to arrest & execute heretics (machiavellian….)
- Index of Prohibited Books → included works by erasmus, protestant reformers, galileo, etc.
- Council of Trent 1545-1563 → reform the CC and forge reconciliation w/ protestants
- Suppressed simony and indulgences
- Rea rmed celibacy of priesthood
- Rea rmed catholic doctrines → transubstantiation, authority of the Pope, and scriptures/ 7 sacraments
*bc of this reconciliation w/ protestants was not possible
- Establishment of new religious order
- St Teresa of Avila: est. the carmelite order, founded numerous convents
- The Jesuits: founded by IGnatios of Loyola, renewal, est. schools, went on missions, brought it to india, japan, brazil. Also worked domestically → many southern provinces of HRE returned to Catholicism
Society and Politics
- CONTEXT: b4 this period a person’s class was est. @ birth by one’s wealth/ fam
- W/ the rise of the merchant elite → movement upward was now a possibility
- Landownership still held prestige
- E.X.: In english parliament, the upper house (“the House of Lords”) was reserved for the landed citizens, while the lower house (“the House of Commons”) was reserved for those w/out land even if they had
- Religion played a role in social standing
- Spanish throne took pains to expel Jews from their land
- Gender = Patriarchy
- Women = largely excluded
- In rural households,mean and women were more =, even though there were separate spheres of work for both and certain roles they each fulfilled
- Urban and rural homes org. around nuclear fam
- Renaissance and reformation raised debates…
- French Intellectuals → Querelle Des Femmes (“the woman ?”) = whether women were fit to have university education
- Anabaptsit allowed women to be included, some even preached
- Mostly women who were martyred
- City govs had to create laws to legislate public morals
- Church did b4 → secular authority now
- Prostitution = outlawed
- Stocks = head, arms, and feet = restrained in blocks of wood
- Flogging
- Culture of Leisure = arising
Unit 3: Absolutism and Constitutionalism (c.1648-c.1815)
- Witchcraft 16th-17th century
- Evidence of a pact w/ the devil
- Illnesses were connected to witches
- Witch hunt → 40-60 thousand ppl were executed
- HRE → ppl were attempting to regain control of their lives after the Protestant reformation and 30 yrs war, scapegoated women
Mannerism and Baroque Art
- Mannerism (developed during ren.) → artists made use of distorted figures, large musculature, and vibrant color in order to communicate deep emotion/drama
- E.X.: Michelangelo’s The Last Judgment in the Sistine Chapel
- Baroque → extravagant in form, ornate & detailed in style, highly emotional/dramatic
- Started in Rome during Catholic Reformation → church = going through renewal, sought to appeal to ppl, bring them back to the church (critique the muted styles of protestant art)
- Sign of wealth and power
- Peter Paul Rubens: The Elevation of the Cross
Absolutism Takes Root
- Absolutism → monarchs consolidating all state power under themselves in order to advance the needs of their own state
- CONTEXT: prior to this power was distributed among monarchs, nobles, & the church
- Monarchs looked @ each other like “Hey y'all want all the power?”
- Factors:
- 1) Weakened Influence of the CC
- Growing acceptance/tolerance of protestants
- Lack of interest in religious warfare after westphalia
- 2) Merchant classes = expanding rapidly
- Desired the $ & political stability abs. Monarchs could provide
- Power = shifting away from landed nobility into the hands of new merchant class
- Louis XIV (14) of France:
- “L'estate c’est moi” = “i am the state”
- Saw himself as the highest/only authority of france
- His past: The fronde → rebellion of french nobles against cardinal mazarin who was ruling when louis was a kid
- Fronde through france into chaos → mazarin prevailed
*vast majority of ppl realized that they needed to have a strong ruler to protect them from chaos
- Jean-Baptiste Colbert: Finance Minister
- Louis introduced several reforms that helped consolidate power
- 1) Intendante System → sent bureaucratic agents called intendants into the various districts of france who acted like avatars of himself
- Wtv policies he passed, intendants would make sure they were obeyed
- undermined the authority of local governors & the nobility
- 2) Palace of Versailles → Louis had many nobles relocated into his own palace @ versailles
- Keep an eye on them /demand their loyalty
- Too keep them entertained he through large parties
- “Sun King”
- 3) Revoked the Edict of Nantes
- Took power away from the catholic church
- Louis thought that to have a state where not everyone conformed to his religious beliefs, catholicism, wasn't a good look
- Hundreds of thousands of huguenots fled
- Made himself the head of the catholic church in france
- 4) Military Expansion
- In order to finance wars, Colbert shaped the french economy according to mercantilist policies
- Steep tari s, exporting more than importing
- 1) decreased France’s debt
- 2) breathed new life into domestic industries
- 3) expanded france’s colonial holdings
- 4) created a favorable balance of trade
- Peter the Great of Russia:
- Became czar in 1682 → Russia was still socially & politically org. According to medieval standards (falling behind)
- West had modernized
- Peter toured western europe → convinced russia had to westernized
- Reforms:
- 1) Political Reform
- Required nobles to serve in the army
- Created the table of ranks
- reducing power of nobility
- 2) Religious Reform
- Reorganized the Russian orthodox church by eliminating the role of Patriarch (like the pope)
- Replaced the role of Patriarch w/ the Holy Synod
- Peter populated this w/ o cials who would do his bidding
- 3) Cultural Reform
- Tried to shape russian culture to fit in the image of W. Europe
- Boyars (land-owning nobles) had long beards
- PTG → “get rid of them, be like the west.”
- Wear western clothing
- Established St.Petersburg in 1703
- Tells nobles to build houses there
- Gives russia a port that doesn't freeze over → “Window to the West”
The Exceptions the English and Dutch
- English:
- Moving towards constitutionalism → government is limited by the rule of law; share power w/ parliament
- English Civil War 1642-1651
- 1) Doctrine of the Divine Right of Kings
- After eliz. I died w/out an heir, James I succeeded her
- He believed monarch was God’s representative on earth
- Parliament est., prevented any king from welding abs. Power
- Charles I inherited the throne & kept divine right of kings belief
- Tensions between parliament (specifically the house of commons) and the king
- King couldn't take property just bc
- 2) economic
- Economic troubles after 30 yrs war & the need to raise an army to fend o an irish rebellion
- Him and his dad spent lots of w/out approval of parliament
- Charles in 1629 refused to call parliament into session
- But in order to crush scotland rebellion, charles was forced to call parliament back into session in 1640 → Long Parliament
- Passed the Triennial Act = forced the king to call parliament into session at least once every 3 yrs
- 3) religion
- Bc of sig changes in theology, the Anglican Church kept a lot of the practices/structure of the CC
- There was a growing minority in the church known as puritans wanted to purify the church by getting rid of the catholic influences
- 1642 → English Civil War began
- Conflict between the King, parliament, and other elites over their respective roles in the political structure (roundheads vs cavaliers)
- Parliament's army (roundheads) won!
- Charles I refused to surrender
- A member of the house of commons (puritan) Oliver Cromwell →led the roundheads against the king and won
- After he kicked out members of parliament who opposed him, what was left = Rump Parliament
- Tried Charles for treason → found him guilty = executed him
- Wanted to create a Commonwealth → created a dictatorship
- Consolidated all the power under himself
- Consequences:
- England became a true republic called the Protectorate
- Cromwell = Protector
- Technically a military dictatorship
- He was also a puritan → imposed strict moral rules (similar to calvin’s geneva)
- 1658 → Cromwell dies, protectorate falls
- 1660 → Parliament restored the monarchy, Charles II (Restoration Period)
- Charles II did not work well
- James II came to power → appointed catholics to powerful positions
- Parliament resisted him
- Parliament offered it to his sister Mary and her husband william of orange
- James fled → abdicated the throne
- William & Mary rose to power 1689 → Glorious Revolution
- No more divine right of kings
- English Bill of Rights → included provisions for parliament, not the monarch, to levy taxes & when parliament makes a law, the monarch cannot annul it
- Dutch:
- Bc of their location on the atlantic, the trading city of antwerp led the dutch to become the most prosperous state in europe
- CONTEXT: 80 yrs war, dutch revolt, william of orange, officially formed after peace of westphalia
- Emerged as the wealthiest european commercial empire
- Oligarchy → a government ruled by a small group of ppl
- Included representatives from each providence
- Elite members of society, policies that served their own interests
- States General = decided on foreign and domestic policy
The Balance of Power
- After westphalia, the main reason war occurred was to maintain the delicate balance of power in europe
- Partition of Poland 1772
- Poland was a constitutional monarchy, weak → nobles exploited peasantry and defied the king
- Did not have a bureaucracy
- Constant war for decades
- Surrounded by abs states (russia,prussia, austria)
- Diplomatic solution → poland = weak, let's divide it up between us
- Balance of power increased the need for countries to go to war w/ each other and expand their military
- Battle of Vienna 1683
- Ottomans = massive in 17th century
- Ambitions to push further into europe
- Attempted to invade austria in order to secure trading routes
- Habsburgs, HRE, and poland stopped the invasion
- Marked the end of ottoman expansion into europe
- Louis XIV Wars:
- Franco-Dutch War 1672-1678 → wanted to gain territory in the Spanish Netherlands & to weaken habsburgs = unsuccessful
- War of Spanish Succession 1702-1713 → when charles II of spain dies, it was arranged that Phillip V to succeed him
- Tea!!! = Phillip was Louis grandson → nations feared that France and spain could be combined under Louis rule…
- Grand Alliance = England, United Provinces, Austria & Prussia declared war in 1702
- Treaty of Utrecht 1713 → phillip V would remain on the spanish throne, but that france and spain had to remain separate entities, also reshaped europe
- Expand militaries
- Keu player = Gustavus adolphus in sweden
- Highly organized ranks
- Military technology
- Nations who expanded their military found themselves on the winning side of the balance of power
The Agricultural Revolution
- Started in Britain and the low countries
- New innovations:
- farmers discovered that they could alternate grain crops with crops that restore nutrients to the soil (potatoes, clover, etc) = fields could produce crops with no yearly fallow period
- Increasing the food supply
- Seed Drill
- Mechanical Hoe
- Cast iron plow
Unit 4: Scientific, Philosophical, and Political Developments (c.1648-c.1815)
- Columbian exchange also helped
Economic Developments in Europe
- Labor & trade = increasingly freed from traditional restrictions imposed by govs
- B4 this workers were only paid if they were a part of a guild which had its own authority structure
- Controlled prices, benefited elite
- W/ the rise & transformation of britain’s wool industry → british manufacturers began paying wages directly to workers
- Cottage industry → b4 the factory became the dominant mode of manufacturing goods during the industrial revolution, goods for purchase were mainly made in ppl’s homes (putting out system)
- E.X.: merchants would bu raw cotton or wool 7 then they would pay wages to spinners/weavers/dyers who would then produce the textile which could be sold on the market
- Led to industrial revolution
- Textile factories (richard arkwright's water frame)
- Insurance → for a monthly premium, insurance companies would recoup an entrepreneur’s losses if something catastrophic happened (made entrepreneurs/factory owners feel secure)
- Specialty Banks & Venture Capital → w/ this explosion of commerce due to the rise of the factory system, specialty banks arose which kept only some of the money ppl deposited & lined the rest out as venture capital(boomboom to get it done) to be paid back w/ interest
- Mercantilism
- Growing consumer culture
Scientific Revolution
- Astronomy → study of the physical universe
- CONTEXT: Geocentric Model = earth at the center
- CC view
- 1) Nicolaus Copernicus: challenged geocentric view
- Heliocentric view = sun at the center
- Earth spins on its axis
- 2) Johannes Kepler: built upon copernicus
- Planets orbited the sun in ellipses
- 3) Galileo Galilei: used telescope
- Observed the moons of dif planets
- Charged of heresy
- CC was not very happy (happening during catholic reformation → index of prohibited books)
- Medicine & Anatomy:
- CONTEXT: ancient greek understanding of the human body and medicine were being overturned by enlightenment thinkers
- Galen: ancient greek, humoral theory
- Body was composed of 4 substances (blood, bile, yellow bile, and flem) → when 4 humors were balanced = healthy
- 1) Paracelsus: rejected galen's theory
- Chemical imbalances caused disease
- Chemical remedies could solve those remedies
- 2) William Harvey: circulatory system
- Reasoning:
- Francis Bacon: knowledge came by empirical research
- Inductive reasoning = started w/ observing the smallest parts of the thing and then move to general principles
- Rene Descartes: known for championing deductive reasoning
- Deductive reasoning = starting with largest possible principles (things you already know/ cannot be doubted) then you can work your way down to knowledge of the specifics
- Scientific method
- Persistent Beliefs:
The Enlightenment
- Enlightenment thinkers applied new methods of reasoning to politics, society, & human institutions
- Started in France:
- Sick of abs monarchy → reactions against it
- Philosophes:
- Voltaire: most famous, many writing, criticising the social & religious institution
- Religious tolerance
- Natural rights, free speech, education reforms
- Deism: argued that there was a God, but that God did not intervene in human a airs (God=clockmaker)
- Denis Diderot: sought to catalog the whole body of knowledge according to enlightenment principles
- Encyclopedia → rasional science and the crafts
- summed up the whole worldview of the enlightenment
- Atheism → knowing about God and consciously rejecting his existence
- David Hume: scottish thinker
- Skepticism → argued that the ides in our brains only reflect our sensory inputs, therefore reason cannot convince us of anything beyond what our senses can interpret
- Leads a person to question EVERYTHING
- E.X. dogmas of the church
- Religion was increasingly viewed as a matter of private rather than public concern
- Society grew increasingly secular → religious emphasis moved from public to private belonging
- German Pietism in the 17th-18th Century:
- Led by count Nikolaus von Zinzendorf, pietism thought that tru religious experience was not just ab belonging to a church, but was bound up in a mystical personal religious experience
- John Locke: human understanding
- Natural Rights → the idea that ppl, just by virtue of being human beings, posses rights like life liberty & property
- God gave us those rights, not by monarch or gov & they can't take those rights away ANDDD the power of the state actually originated with the ppl
- Popular sovereignty → only be governed by their own consent, not the divine right of kings
- Jean Jacques Rousseau: the idea of the social contract
- When ppl est. a gov that protect their natural rights, they are entering into a social contract
- Ppl will surrender som power