MIDDLE AND LATE BYZANTINE ART

The production and veneration of icons began rapidly in the sixth century.
In Byzantium, icons were seen as trustworthy representations of the divine, similar to relics, but were more accessible for devotion.
Rituals for the veneration of icons included:
- Proskynesis: prostrating oneself before the icon.
- Placing of candles around the base of the icon.
Some icons were considered acheiropoietai (images made without human hands), believed to be miraculous impressions left on cloth or stone from holy figures.
Saint Luke is often regarded as the first artist to create a portrait of the Virgin Mary, from life, which served as the prototype for later icons of Mary holding her child.
The goal of icon painters was to replicate this prototype faithfully; deviating from it would dilute the true image.

Worshippers believed in the miraculous qualities of icons for protection and healing, functioning as palladia (security images for communities).
Critics of icon veneration, notably within the Church, argued:
- The veneration of painted portraits blurred the lines between likeness and idol worship, violating the spirituality of worship.
- They referenced the Second Commandment (Exod. 20:4), prohibiting graven images.
- Icons resembled pagan idols, which raised concerns that their veneration could lead to idolatry.
Iconoclasts contended:
- Unlike relics, which had divine contact, icons were made by human artists and not worthy of veneration.
Defenders of icons (iconodules, iconophiles) maintained:
- Icons served didactic roles as visual aids for the illiterate; John of Damascus stated, "An image is, after all, a reminder; it is to the illiterate what a book is to the literate, and what the word is to hearing, the image is to sight."
- Icons, while not possessing the true substance of their prototypes, facilitated a channel for the faithful to express love and honor for the depicted figures, consistent with the Book of Genesis, which states that man was created in God's image (1:27).
- The Incarnation of Christ emphasized that if God could take human form, He could also be visually represented.
- At the Quinisext Council (692), it was stated that to represent Christ in images was necessary for acknowledging His humanity.

Opposition to icon veneration intensified under Emperor Leo III (717-741), influenced by the Islamic prohibitions against sacred images encountered during his upbringing in Isauria.
Constantine V (741-775) strictly enforced iconoclasm, resulting in the destruction of icons, mosaics, and persecution of icon defenders.
The first edict against icons was issued around 726. The Iconoclastic Council (754) mandated a ban on all figurative images.
Political motivations for iconoclasm included:
- Disruption of the balance of caesaropapism, where the Church's authority contradicted the emperor's rule.
- Targeting monasteries, significant for pilgrimage due to their icons and wealth, to reduce their influence.

The iconodule Empress Theodora was pivotal in restoring the veneration of icons on March 11, 843, marking the Feast of Orthodoxy.
The restoration included:
- Return of the icon of Christ to its place on the Chalke Gate.
- Significant renewals in Byzantine art initiated a second golden age.
The Khludov Psalter reflected the iconoclastic struggle through its imagery depicting biblical narratives juxtaposed against iconoclasts, traditionally associating wealth with spiritual blindness.
Byzantine influence expanded, impacting Italy and beyond, especially through art and statecraft.

Byzantine architecture evolved around the Greek cross-in-square plan, often with domes elevated over the intersections.
Hagia Sophia's later mosaics reinstated after iconoclasm featured classical subjects, emphasizing the dichotomy of human-encoded spirituality with divine presence.
The blend of narrative styles revived classical techniques manifesting in book illustrations and frescoes, focusing on dynamic compositions against simple, gold-backdropped scenes.
Innovations like the Joshua Roll employed scrolls, showcasing seamless narrative transitions in biblical history, enhancing the communication of theological themes.

The crusades and subsequent Latin occupation of Constantinople (1204), followed by the Palaiologos dynasty (1250s onwards), marked a significant shift in Byzantine art and representation.
Mosaics and frescoes from this period demonstrated increasing naturalism, vibrant colors, and dramatic expressions.
Artistic expressions of the late Byzantine era often featured titles like Anastasis, embodying messages of spiritual triumph and hope, culminating in the intricate mosaics and frescoes seen in structures like Hagia Sophia and the Chora Monastery.
The Islamic conversion of churches into mosques led to alterations in style with mixed legacies, as some architectural elements and iconography continued to be celebrated.

Byzantine art is characterized by its religious fervor, deep-rooted traditions of iconography, and a ceaseless dialogue between the divine and the artistic realm. Decisions made during periods of iconoclasm underscore the cultural and theological implications that shaped the trajectory of Byzantine art throughout its evolution.