Exam Study Notes: US Foreign Policy & WWI
The US And The First World War
Key Terms
14 Points: A set of principles for peace negotiations to end World War I.
Alsace-Lorraine: Area of France taken by Germany during the Franco-Prussian War.
League of Nations: An international organization to maintain peaceful relations and encourage cooperation.
Reparations: Compensation paid by the losing side for war costs.
Covenant of the League Nations: Document containing the rules and organization of the League of Nations. Its acceptance was a clause in all peace treaties, so its rejection would also mean the rejection of all the peace treaties.
Wilson’s Peace Ideals
Wilson proposed the 14 points to establish a world democracy of peace.
It emphasized free trade, less secrecy, and the independence of nations and colonies.
At the Paris Peace Conference, most of these ideas were ignored.
The conference primarily focused on Germany repaying its debts for WWI.
Wilson aimed to establish the U.S. as a superpower.
The only one of the 14 points carried out was the establishment of Poland as an independent nation.
Germany had to pay reparations for the war but had no say in the matter.
Germany lost territory to other nations.
The League of Nations was proposed, but the U.S. did not join to avoid being controlled by the League.
Key Questions
What was the purpose of President Wilson’s League of Nations plan?
What was the point of the Paris Peace Conference, and why did President Wilson attend in person?
What was a significant disadvantage to President Wilson’s attempts to influence the proceedings?
How did the Dawes Plan and Young Plan affect the amount of reparations that Germany had to pay?
Why did Germany have to pay reparations to France and Britain?
Why was the World Court established alongside the League of Nations?
Thesis Statements
The League of Nations was created by President Woodrow Wilson to prevent another world war by uniting countries through peace agreements.
The Paris Peace Conference aimed to determine punishments for countries due to the war and weaken the Axis powers. Wilson attended to promote his Fourteen Points and increase America's presence in the League of Nations.
Wilson failed to convince the U.S. to join the League of Nations due to his inability to compromise and his deteriorating health.
The Dawes Plan allowed Germany to start making more money, and the Young Plan reduced the war reparations Germany needed to pay. However, the Great Depression made payments impossible.
World War I Overview
Triggered in 1914 by the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand.
Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia after Serbia declined A-H's retribution demands.
Russia mobilized troops to defend Serbia.
Germany declared war on Russia and France.
Germany invaded Belgium.
Britain declared war on Germany.
Italy initially sided with the Axis powers but later switched.
Four years of trench warfare began.
Britain initiated a naval blockade against Germany.
The Battle of the Somme resulted in over 1 million casualties.
The Bolshevik Revolution took place.
The U.S. joined the war despite attempts at neutrality.
The Allied powers gained the upper hand.
The war ended with Germany signing the Treaty of Versailles.
Sources of War
Militarism
Alliances
Imperialism
Nationalism
Key Terms
Allies: Britain, France, Italy, Russia, and the United States.
Central Forces: Germany, Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria, and the Ottoman Empire.
Lusitania: A British luxury liner sunk by a German submarine; it secretly carried ammunition.
Propaganda: Biased information used to promote a particular political viewpoint.
Profiteering: Making unfair profits, especially illegally.
Unrestricted Submarine Warfare: Naval warfare without threats and warnings.
Zimmerman Telegram: A German proposal for a military alliance between Germany and Mexico. Mexico would get US land back.
Key Questions
To what extent did the USA adopt a policy of neutrality?
Why did the USA enter the war in April 1917?
What reasons have been offered by historians for the entry of the USA into the First World War?
USA Neutrality Policy
Public Opinion::
Many Americans felt the U.S. should not interfere with the war because it did not involve them.
They did not want to be part of political entanglements with Europe.
Wilsonianism:
President Wilson initially wanted the U.S. to stay out of the war.
He thought the U.S. could mediate the conflict.
The U.S. traded goods to both sides of the war.
American ports were open to all powers for non-military purposes.
Reasons for US Entry into WWI
Woodrow Wilson believed the U.S. could gain post-war influence by joining but wanted to remain independent.
The U.S. attempted to arrange peace conferences and warned of intervention if Germany didn’t participate.
The unrestricted submarine warfare Germany instated
German activities and espionage within the U.S., along with German American support
The Zimmerman Telegram, sought Mexico’s support and promised to regain U.S. land.
Wilson believed the Allies needed U.S. involvement to win.
Zimmerman Telegram
German Secretary Arthur Zimmerman proposed a Mexican-German alliance if the U.S. entered the war against Germany.
The telegram was intercepted by British Intelligence.
The telegram acted as a catalyst for the U.S. to enter the war, fearing a German attack.
Historians' Reasons for US Entry
Economic and Isolationist Debate:
Some historians argue that the U.S. entered the war to protect its economic interests and due to Wilson’s entanglement with big businesses.
Others dismiss this view because of the healthy U.S. economy in 1916 before US officially joined.
Moral Crusade:
Carl N. Degler argued the U-boat campaign violated international law.
Wilson wanted a fair peace settlement, respect for all, and democracy, which he believed could only be achieved with U.S. involvement.
Some historians believe the U.S. should have stayed out of WWI, considering his involvement problematic and not truly neutral.
Thesis Statements
The U.S. entered WWI mainly to protect its economic interests, having lent over to the Allies.
The U.S. entered WWI to protect economic interests and to protect people from the Axis powers after the sinking of the Lusitania.
Social Impact of WWI on the United States
The women’s suffrage movement grew.
Women took on jobs previously held by men.
The mass employment of women led to greater female empowerment in society.
The 19th Amendment was ratified on August 18, 1920, granting women the right to vote.
US Foreign Policies (1901-1917)
Theodore Roosevelt’s Presidency: 1901-1909
William Taft’s Presidency: 1909-1913
Woodrow Wilson’s Presidency: 1913-1921
The Roosevelt Corollary: 1904 (continuation of the Monroe Doctrine)
Annexation of The Philippines: 1899
“Filipinization”: 1912
Taft’s Dollar Diplomacy: 1909, 1912 (Nicaragua)
Wilson’s Moral Diplomacy: 1900-1934 (Haiti), 1915-1924 (Dominican Republic), 1912-1925 (Nicaragua- Continuation of Wilson’s Dollar Diplomacy)
Key Terms
William Howard Taft: 27th president of the US
President Zelaya: president of Nicaragua
Theodore Roosevelt: 26th president of the US
Woodrow Wilson: 28th president of the US
Insular Cases: series of opinions by the US Supreme Court on land gained during the war
Roosevelt Corollary: justified US expansion in the Western Hemisphere
Key Questions
To what extent did Taft practice “dollar diplomacy”
What was the impact of US involvement in Cuba?
What were Roosevelt’s policies in Asia?
What were the motives for imperialism?
Taft’s Dollar Diplomacy
Taft used dollar diplomacy to further U.S. aims in Latin America and East Asia through economic means.
He defended it as an extension of the Monroe Doctrine.
The U.S. believed it could create economic and political stability in other countries, thus adding them to the U.S. sphere of influence.
US Involvement in Cuba
U.S. involvement led to Cuba gaining independence from Spain but then being taken over by the U.S.
The U.S. took control of Cuban trade, boosting their economy, but this mainly benefited the U.S.
Cuba became dependent on the U.S. for economic and political stability.
Theodore Roosevelt’s Policies in Asia
Theodore Roosevelt aimed to protect U.S. business interests overseas in Asia, such as in China and Japan.
He created the Reciprocal Tariff Act to keep American businesses powerful and maintain America’s economic growth.
Motives for US Imperialism
Preclusive Imperialism: Preventing other countries from becoming too strong.
Yellow Journalism: Sparked public action in the U.S. to help countries like Cuba.
Social Darwinism: The belief that the U.S. was superior to other races and needed to help them.
Big Stick Diplomacy
Created by President Theodore Roosevelt.
The concept of 'speak softly and carry a big stick'.
The exercise of intelligent forethought and decisive action far in advance of any likely crisis.
It involved peaceful negotiations backed by the threat of military power.
Dollar Diplomacy
Diplomacy instituted by William Taft.
Believed in solving issues through economic means.
Aimed to help the U.S. economy by expanding business interests.
It was believed to create political stability by providing economic diplomacy.
Moral Diplomacy
The idea that contact with the U.S. could only benefit others.
The U.S. considered itself morally superior to other nations.
Diplomacy was governed by noble and benevolent principles.
It resulted in giving in reparations to Panamanians for the U.S. role in encouraging rebellion and compensation to Nicaragua.
Thesis Statements
Compare and contrast the US policies of the Big Stick and Moral Diplomacy.
To what extent was US policy towards Latin America dominated by “Dollar Diplomacy” between 1880-1929? (Questions)
Thesis Statements
The moral diplomacy and big stick diplomacy are different in the reasons for their upbringing, yet similar in their results, such as the excessive military intervention.
US policy towards Latin America was not dominated by dollar diplomacy from 1880-1929, yet its presence greatly affected relations with Cuba, shown by the massive amounts of sugar trade from 1900 onward, and the electric railroad built by Hershey in 1922. (Answers)
US Policies
Dollar Diplomacy: Increasing American trade upon the principle the government shall extend all proper support to every legitimate and beneficial American enterprise abroad
Moral Diplomacy: Sympathy and understanding unites nations. It is perilous to determine the foreign policy of a nation in terms of material interest and degrading as regards your own actions.
Roosevelt Corollary: US feels no land hunger or entertains any projects as regards the other nations of the Western Hemisphere save such as are for their welfare. All the country desires is to see the neighboring countries stable, orderly, and prosperous.
Key Terms
Yellow Journalism
American Anti-Imperialist League
McKinley Tariff
Theodore Roosevelt
Henry Cabot League
William McKinley
Cuba Libre
Teller Amendment
Platt Amendment
USS Maine
Albert Beveridge
Jose Marti
William Randolph Hearst
De Lome Letter
Large Policy
Rough Riders
Conquest of the US made by Spain
Thesis Statements
The Spanish American war was described as a “splendid war” due to the decisive victory against Spanish forces, the vast resources gained by the war, and the rise of the United States as an imperial power.
The idea of Cuban Independence was not a heavy influence in the United States’ decision to enter the Spanish-American war as they were driven more by personal glory, a restless working class, and potential economic gains.
The Spanish-American war created long-lasting effects on US foreign policy as it represented the transformation of the US from an isolationist nation to an imperial power.
The Spanish-American war brought mixed results for Cuba as the island became dependent on the United States.
Key Questions
The relationship between the USA and Cuba prior to 1898
USAs involvement in war 1898
Why US went to war with Spain in 1898
The difference it makes to call the conflict the Spanish American Cuban War rather than Spanish American War
Annexation, occupation,Colonization, invasion,seizure similarities and differences
Effectiveness of the conduction of the US war
Results of the Post-war Peace-making
Questions
The reason the US colonize the Philippines was because they see it as a stepping stone to China as US produced more product than local market could consume.
The group that opposed annexation of the Philippines was called the Anti- imperialist League because they thought it was not humane.
The effects of annexing the Philippines was the Philippines to lose independence to the US, resulting in the US becoming an imperial power.
The reasons historians gave for the annexation of the Philippines was that the island could not be returned to Spain, Monroe Doctrine as US didn’t want Europe to claim them
President McKinley had a huge role in the annexation because he said the annexation of the philippines was necessary to spread christianity.
The annexation of the Philippines was a huge aberration of US foreign policy as they went from being neutral to being imperial power in foreign countries.
Political
Key Terms
Monroe Doctrine: Policy stating that the US opposed further European colonization of and interference with independent nations in the Western Hemisphere
Preclusive Imperialism: Process by which countries took colonies to prevent others from doing so
Benevolent Neutral: A country that tries to arbitrate (judge, mediate) between disputing nations without taking sides
Great Debate: Raised questions such as: Does the Constitution permit colonization? Could the US exploit the resources & Market of the Dominican Rep? Should the US deal with savages?
The Impact Of Sea Power Upon History: Book written by Alfred T. Mahan arguing that nations with powerful navies and overseas bases would grow with strength
“….Secondly, naval force, the arm of offensive power, which alone enables a country to extend its influence outward.” - Alfred T. Mahan, The Influence of Sea Power Upon History
Key Questions
Why did the USA distance itself from foreign involvement?
Geographically isolated
Presidents wanted to follow George Washington’s philosophy
What were the most significant reasons why the USA became an imperial power?
Ideology of Manifest Destiny
Social Darwinism & Josiah Strong
To sell to foreign market due to overproduction and Depression of 1893
How far had the USA involved itself in foreign affairs during the early to mid-nineteenth century?
In 1803, the USA purchased Louisiana from France.
Traded with China
Traded with Japan and helped them industrialize
In 1823, the USA created the Monroe Doctrine
How important was the growth of the navy to imperial growth?
The US could exert influence in new regions
Could create new shipping routes and set up more coaling stations
Thesis statement
Although economic, political, social and ideological reasons were all vital in the shift in expansionist foreign policies, preclusive imperialism can be described as the most impactful. This is because there was a large need to get involved in the global competition for empire.
Social
Key Terms
Social Darwinism: survival of the fittest and the theory of evolution applied to human development and society; suggesting that some racial groups are superior to others
Nationalists: Someone who promotes the interest of their country
Key Questions
How far did the USA develop imperial interests before 1898?
Pacific
Latin America
Why did the USA involve itself in Latin America in the late 19th century?
Preclusive Imperialism
Free Trade
Ideological
Key Terms
Turner's Thesis: idea dated back from 1893, about the unique character of the USA and how it had been largely determined by the frontier and westward expansion
Manifest destiny: belief that the expansion of the US throughout the American continents was justified and inevitable/ belief that it was god givens right of the americans to settle their continent
Our Country: is possible future and its present crisis(1885): Book where author Josiah Strong argues that the anglo-saxon race was destined to dominate the world
Key Questions
What was the significance of the frontier in US history?
Allowed American society to develop
Manifest Destiny
How important was the concept of Manifest Destiny to the US impetus for imperial expansion?
It encouraged people to expand Westward
Americans started to believe it was their destiny to spread their influence
Economical
Key Terms
Mckinley Tariff: Protected Domestic industries from foreign companies by taxing imports
Imported goods would become more expensive compared to those made in America
Key Questions
What role did missionaries have in the development of the US empire?
Spread of US culture
Open trade
Helped “civilize” people
Why did the USA intervene in the Pacific region in the 19th century?
Strategic naval bases
Raw Materials
What two ‘new’ countries emerged on the world stage in the late 19th century?
USA
Germany
Why did American business turn to foreign markets from 1880-1900?
Depression of 1893
Overproduction of resources and materials
More opportunities
Able to make more profits
IB Themes
US and the First World War: neutrality to involvement. Wilsons peace ideals. Significance of war for US. Involvement in Canada and american coutnries, economical politcal influence.
Involvement and participation of either Canada or one Latin American country in the First World War: reasons for and/or against participation; nature of participation.
Impact of the First World War on two countries of the Americas: economic, political, social, and foreign policies.
Themes of Wilson & WWI (Similar to Moral Diplomacy)
Wilson turned America's participation in World War I into a fervent crusade
After America's contribution to the Allied victory, a triumphant Wilson attempted to construct a peace based on his idealistic Fourteen Points.
The Effects of WWII
19 million deaths, 7 million disabled, and in costs.
Growth of big government.
Influenza killed 20 million.
Development of vulnerable middle class.
Growing cynicism against political leaders.
Rise of communism.
Development of new technologies.
Disruption of world trade.
Development of the United States as a world power: Estonia, Finland.
Long Term Causes in Europe
European Alliance System
Nationalism
Imperialism
Militarism$
Instability of Ottoman Empire
The Alliance System (1879-1914)
Triple Alliance (1882): Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy
Triple Entente (1907): Britain, France, Russia
Nationalism and Militarism
Militant nationalism in Balkans.
Austrian Monarch created to placate nationalists.
Germans, French, British, and Italian captivated by militant nationalism.
The Moroccan Crisis of 1905: Imperial Competition
Germany committed to Moroccan Independence.
Britain supported France's control of Morocco.
Instability of Ottoman Empire
Ottoman Empire cannot compete with the new superpowers.
Spark of WWI
Archduke Franz Ferdinand assassinated.
Balkan Wars (1912-1913)
Serbia, Greece, Bulgaria, & Montenegro combine forces.
Win land from declining Ottomans.
Austrian threats blocked Serbia from gaining access to Sea.
Timeline
July 23: Austria-Hungary presents ultimatum to Serbia.
July 28: Austria-Hungary declares war on Serbia.
July 30: Russia mobilizes troops against Germany and Austria- Hungary.
August 1: Germany declares war on Russia
August 2: Germany invades Luxembourg
August 3: Germany declares war on France
August 4:
Germany invades Belgium
Great Britain declares war on Germany
August 6: Austria declares war on Russia
August 12: France and Britain declare war on Austria- Hungary
Schlieffen Plan (German)
A strategy to quickly defeat France and then focus on Russia, requiring invasion of neutral Belgium.
War of Attrition
Tanks, barbed wire, mustard gas.
Airplanes and Weapons
As weapons changed; tactics changed
The machine guns fire eight rounds per second, and are able reach 2,900 yards.
Grenades
Flame throwers. 24 million shells used in the Battle of Verdun alone.
75 different types of poison-gas bombs used. Tanks. Radio
Casualties
Britain suffered 57,470 casualties on the first day of the Battle of the Somme!
Total losses for World War I exceeded 10 million
Eastern Front
Russian army: poorly trained, ill equipped, poor leaders.
Food shortages, massive losses, low morale. Germans blockaded Baltic Sea.
Monarchy overthrown. Bolshevik Revolution 1917!
Revolution
Abdication of Tsar
The Bolsheviks
Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, March 1918
American Neutrality
American were said to be neutral in fact and name during the war.
Both sides in Europe wooed the United States
US Neutrality
Wilson hoped to play a role arbitrating peace. Also, the influence of the isolationists and moral diplomacy.
1914: Germans blockade Britain.
Toward War
The most troublesome issue concerned freedom of the seas and neutrality rights.
The British Naval Blockade (against Germany): August 1914
The German Naval Blockade (to block US shipments to Britain): February 1915
Issues
German submarines become increasingly dangerous for American shipping
Germany said they wouldn't sink neutral boats, but mistakes might happen.
Germany sinks the Lusitania
1300 passengers killed. Many Americans called it an act of
Examples
Wilson’s Peace Ideals
Fourteen Points (1918) – Wilson outlined a peace program to address the causes of WWI and prevent future wars. It included principles like self-determination, freedom of the seas, and disarmament. It aimed to replace imperialism with collective security and open diplomacy.
League of Nations – Proposed in the Fourteen Points as an international body to resolve conflicts and maintain peace. Although it was established in the Treaty of Versailles, the U.S. Senate rejected membership, weakening its effectiveness.
Paris Peace Conference (1919) – Wilson was the only Allied leader to personally attend the conference, but his idealism clashed with British and French desires to punish Germany. Only a few of his points were included, and the harsh treaty terms sowed seeds of resentment in Germany.
Sources of War (WWI)
Militarism – European powers expanded their armies and navies in the decades before 1914. The Anglo-German naval race, especially after the launch of the HMS Dreadnought in 1906, heightened tensions and made war more likely.
Alliances – The Triple Alliance (Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy) and the Triple Entente (Britain, France, Russia) created a rigid system of mutual defense that turned a regional Balkan crisis into a global war.
Nationalism – Ethnic groups in multi-national empires (e.g., Serbs in Austria-Hungary) sought independence. Serbian nationalism, especially the Black Hand terrorist group, played a direct role in the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand.
Imperialism – Competing colonial ambitions, especially in Africa and Asia, caused tensions. The Moroccan Crises (1905, 1911) saw Germany challenge French control and threatened war with Britain and France.
USA Neutrality Policy
Neutrality Proclamation (1914) – President Wilson declared that the U.S. would remain neutral in WWI, reflecting traditional isolationist policies and widespread public opposition to foreign wars.
Economic Neutrality – Though neutral, the U.S. exported goods and loans overwhelmingly to the Allies. By 1917, U.S. banks had lent over $2 billion to Britain and France, versus just $27 million to Germany.
Public Opinion & 1916 Election – Wilson’s campaign slogan "He kept us out of war" appealed to a war-weary electorate. Many Americans, especially German and Irish immigrants, opposed joining the Allied side.
Bryan's Resignation (1915) – Secretary of State William Jennings Bryan resigned in protest over Wilson’s harsh response to Germany after the Lusitania sinking, believing it violated true neutrality.
Reasons for U.S. Entry into WWI
Unrestricted Submarine Warfare (1917) – Germany resumed attacks on all ships in the war zone, including American vessels, breaking earlier promises after the Lusitania sinking. This was a direct threat to American lives and commerce.
Sinking of the Lusitania (1915) – A British passenger ship torpedoed by a German U-boat, killing 1,198 people, including 128 Americans. Public opinion shifted toward intervention, though Wilson delayed entry.
Zimmerman Telegram (1917) – Intercepted by British intelligence, this secret German message urged Mexico to join Germany against the U.S. in exchange for lost territories. It incited outrage and was a turning point in favor of war.
Wilson’s Idealism – In his war message to Congress (April 1917), Wilson framed the war as a moral crusade: “The world must be made safe for democracy.” This gave a noble justification for U.S. involvement.
Russian Revolution (1917) – The abdication of Tsar Nicholas II allowed Wilson to claim the Allies were now fighting for democracy, removing a barrier to allying with autocratic Russia.
U.S. Foreign Policies (1901–1917)
Roosevelt Corollary (1904) – Extended the Monroe Doctrine by declaring that the U.S. had the right to intervene in Latin American countries to preserve order and prevent European intervention.
Panama Canal (1904–1914) – Roosevelt backed a revolution in Panama against Colombia to secure the canal zone. The canal was vital for U.S. military and commercial shipping, enhancing global influence.
Annexation of the Philippines (1899) – After defeating Spain, the U.S. took control of the Philippines, justifying it as a civilizing mission. The move led to a brutal guerrilla war and long-term occupation.
Filipinization (1912) – Partial self-rule was granted, but the U.S. retained control over foreign affairs and military bases, reflecting its imperial intentions.
Taft’s Dollar Diplomacy
Nicaragua (1912) – The U.S. supported a conservative regime and secured financial control in exchange for loans, deploying Marines to ensure stability and protect U.S. interests.
China – Hukuang Railway Loans (1911) – U.S. banks joined an international consortium to invest in Chinese infrastructure, attempting to counterbalance European and Japanese influence.
Honduras and the Dominican Republic – The U.S. used financial pressure and banking reforms to stabilize governments and ensure debt repayment to U.S. investors.
U.S. Involvement in Cuba
Platt Amendment (1901) – Cuba could not make treaties or incur debt without U.S. approval, and the U.S. could intervene to preserve order. This effectively made Cuba a U.S. protectorate.
U.S. Military Occupation (1906–1909) – The U.S. reoccupied Cuba to stabilize internal unrest, demonstrating how "independent" Cuba remained under American influence.
Economic Control – U.S. companies controlled much of Cuba’s sugar industry. The Hershey Electric Railway (1922) exemplifies how infrastructure supported U.S. corporate interests.
Theodore Roosevelt’s Policies in Asia
Russo-Japanese War Mediation (1905) – Roosevelt mediated the Treaty of Portsmouth, earning the Nobel Peace Prize and positioning the U.S. as a global peacemaker.
Open Door Policy (1899–1900) – Aimed to preserve equal trading rights in China and prevent European or Japanese dominance, it reflected U.S. economic expansionism in Asia.
Great White Fleet (1907–1909) – A global naval tour showcasing U.S. power, particularly in the Pacific, to deter Japan and assert U.S. interests.
Motives for U.S. Imperialism
Economic – The Depression of 1893 and overproduction prompted business leaders to seek new markets abroad.
Strategic – Alfred T. Mahan argued in The Influence of Sea Power Upon History that naval strength and overseas bases were essential for national power.
Ideological – Josiah Strong’s Our Country (1885) promoted Anglo-Saxon superiority and a divine duty to civilize non-Western peoples.
Preclusive Imperialism – The U.S. annexed territories like Hawaii and the Philippines to prevent European or Japanese expansion.
Big Stick Diplomacy
Panama Canal Zone Acquisition (1903) – Roosevelt supported Panamanian independence from Colombia in exchange for control of the canal route.
Dominican Customs Receivership (1905) – U.S. took over revenue collection to stabilize the economy and avoid European intervention.
Second Cuban Occupation (1906–1909) – Justified under the Platt Amendment to restore order during internal political instability.
Dollar Diplomacy
Nicaragua (1912–1933) – U.S. controlled the country’s finances and supported a compliant regime; U.S. Marines stayed for over 20 years.
Honduras (1911) – U.S. bankers restructured Honduran debt in return for financial oversight and influence over its railroad and customs.
China – Railroad Investments – The U.S. sought economic influence through large infrastructure loans to build railways in central China.
Moral Diplomacy
Mexico – Refusal to Recognize Huerta (1913) – Wilson withdrew recognition from Victoriano Huerta’s regime, labeling it a “government of butchers,” and later supported Venustiano Carranza.
Haiti (1915–1934) – After the assassination of the Haitian president, the U.S. occupied the country for nearly 20 years to restore order and implement reforms.
Dominican Republic (1916–1924) – U.S. military governed the country, arguing it was necessary to bring political stability and democratic governance.
U.S. Policies (General Examples for 1880–1930)
Annexation of the Philippines (1899) – Following the Spanish-American War, the U.S. crushed Filipino independence forces and established colonial rule.
Open Door Notes (1899–1900) – Asserted equal trade rights in China, reflecting American economic interest and opposition to European spheres of influence.
Versailles Treaty Rejection (1919) – The U.S. returned to isolationism after the Senate refused to ratify the treaty, signaling a retreat from Wilson’s global vision.
Pan-American Conferences (1889 onward) – Promoted U.S.-led hemispheric cooperation in trade and diplomacy, increasing influence in Latin America.