Comprehensive Philosophy Review Notes

Distinguishing Holistic vs. Partial Perspectives

  • Universal vs. Particular

    • Particular: focuses on a part of reality or on day-to-day challenges (e.g., “Why are you here?” asked because of today’s struggle).

    • Universal: embraces the whole of existence and ultimate purpose—incorporates both Who determines purpose and What that purpose is.

  • Philosophizing = adopting a holistic perspective on life.

How Philosophy Is Defined

  • Etymology: Philo (love) + Sophia (wisdom) ⇒ “Love of wisdom.”

  • Working definition (scholastic tradition)

    • Science of sciences: systematic body of knowledge that conforms to reality.

    • Science of beings: studies everything that exists or may exist.

    • Investigates ultimate causes & principles.

    • Employs human reason alone as its primary tool.

Three Characteristics of Philosophical Questions

  • A. Broad & general.

  • B. No single methodology for answering.

  • C. Seemingly no direct practical utility—yet give birth to other disciplines.

Philosophers = Lovers of Wisdom (Pages 8–13)

  • 1 Know the truth (Logic & Epistemology).

  • 2 Rise above ordinary concerns (Philosophy of Man, Social Philosophy).

  • 3 Not swayed by popular opinion (Politics).

  • 4 Best sources of counsel—see clearly (Psychology & Ethics).

  • 5 Possess truths hidden from ordinary people (Metaphysics, Philosophy of Religion, Theodicy).

Historical Backdrop Before Philosophy

  • Ancient Greeks absorbed in mythos; appeased gods via offerings.

  • Thales (c. 650 BC) breaks with myth; asks about underlying substance & change.

  • Period 600 BC–600 AD termed cosmocentric (phusis = nature). Central question: origin (arche) of the universe.

  • Miletus: wealthy Ionian trade hub—melting pot of ideas; encouraged open argumentation.

The Pre-Socratics

  • Milesian Triumvirate: Thales, Anaximander, Anaximenes.

  • Other Pre-Socratics: Pythagoras, Heraclitus, Parmenides, Empedocles, Anaxagoras.

  • Shared traits:

    • Used pure reason + observation; no instruments.

    • Hylozoism: all matter is alive (hylo + zoe).

Thales

  • Arche = Water; universe is an orderly Cosmos governed by logos.

  • Brought geometry from Egypt; predicted eclipse.

  • Flat-earth view; magnets considered “alive.”

Anaximander

  • Arche = Apeiron (the infinite, attributeless, eternal).

  • Earth cylindrical & suspended; first to draw a map.

Anaximenes

  • Arche = Air; life principle encompassing cosmos.

  • Flat, round “saucer” earth floating on air.

Pythagoras

  • Coined “philosophy,” used logos for cosmology.

  • Reality’s primary constituents: Numbers.

  • Philosophy + mathematics purify the soul; led Pythagorean religious order.

Heraclitus

  • Central doctrine: Flux—perpetual change.

  • “You cannot step twice into the same river.” Fire is metaphor of becoming.

Parmenides

  • Opposite stance: Being is single, immovable; change is illusion.

Empedocles

  • Pluralist: four roots—earth, air, fire, water.

  • Claimed magical powers; died leaping into Mt. Etna.

Anaxagoras

  • Infinite “seeds”; everything contains parts of everything else.

  • Introduced Nous (mind) as cosmic ordering force—prototype for theistic concept of God.

Doing Philosophy: Value & Competencies

  • Learning Competencies (1.2–1.4): identify reflective activities; attain broad perspective; perform holistic reflection.

  • Content ⚙ Process: learner reflects philosophically on concrete experience.

John Kavanaugh’s Three Disciplines

  1. Questioning – asking enduring “Who am I?” “Why am I here?”

  2. Liberation – frees from ignorance, blind conformity; fosters meaningful life.

  3. Personhood – relentless search for truth and wisdom; humans driven to know & act.

Eastern vs. Western Philosophizing

  • Eastern

    • No man–world dichotomy; philosophy entwined with religion (e.g., Lao-Tzu, Confucius).

    • Philosophy as way of life.

  • Western

    • Revolutionary break from myth; relies on rational analysis.

    • Knowledge pursued for its own sake.

Key Western Thinkers on the Impulse to Philosophize

  • Plato – Sense of wonder.

  • Socrates – Awareness of ignorance; “I know that I do not know.” “Unexamined life…”

  • René Descartes – Methodical doubt; “Cogito ergo sum.” Birth of scientific hypothesis.

  • Karl Jaspers – Limit-situations provoke philosophy; provides meaning amid dread.

Approaches in Doing Philosophy

  1. Critical / Analytic

    • Define concepts; expose prejudices; clarify verbal disagreements.

  2. Speculative / Metaphysical

    • Seek synoptic, underlying explanations of all reality.

Six Major Themes Philosophy Tackles

  1. Metaphysics

  2. Logic

  3. Epistemology

  4. Aesthetics

  5. Politics

  6. Ethics

Fact vs. Opinion & Knowledge Acquisition

  • Fact: objective, data-based, verifiable—but can turn false upon verification.

  • Opinion: subjective, unverifiable.

  • Three stages to apprehend concepts: Perception → Abstraction → Judgment.

  • Sources of Knowledge

    1. Reason (analytic)

    2. Experience (empirical)

    3. Intuition (self-evident truths)

Formal vs. Empirical Knowledge

  • Formal: deduction\text{deduction}; validity within system (math, logic).

  • Empirical: induction\text{induction}; verification by experience (sciences).

Types of Statements (David Hume)

  • Analytic (a priori, truths of reason).

  • Empirical / Synthetic (a posteriori, matters of fact).

Theories of Truth

  1. Coherence

  2. Correspondence

  3. Pragmatic

Key Methods of Philosophizing

Socratic Method (Dialectic / Maieutic)

  • Admit ignorance → Ask for definitions → Test via question & answer → Refine definition.

  • Goal: arrive at clear essence; not rhetoric or debate.

Systematic Doubt (Descartes)

  • Doubt all that can be doubted until reaching clear & distinct ideas.

  • Indubitable premise: thinking self exists—Cogito ergo sum\textit{Cogito ergo sum}.

Logical Fallacies (Selected)

  • Ad Hominem – attack person.

  • Ad Baculum – appeal to force/threat.

  • Ad Misericordiam – appeal to pity.

  • Ad Populum – bandwagon.

  • Ad Traditionem – appeal to tradition.

  • Ad Ignorantiam – appeal to ignorance.

  • Petitio Principii – begging the question.

  • Hasty Generalization.

  • Post Hoc (false cause).

  • Composition & Division.

  • Equivocation.

  • Accident (misapplied general rule).

  • Argument from Authority (misuse).

  • False Dichotomy.

  • Red Herring.

Allegory of the Cave (Plato)

  • Prisoners mistake shadows for reality (world of opinion).

  • Liberation → painful ascent to sunlight (truth, the Forms).

  • Education = turning the soul from becoming to being.

Logic Basics

  • Logic = branch analyzing arguments; seeks correct reasoning.

Human Person as an Embodied Spirit

Key Terms

  • Man (obsolete generic); Person; Human Being; Personhood; Human Nature.

  • UNESCO Article 1: all humans born free & equal in dignity & rights.

  • Kant: treat every person as an end-in-themselves, never merely as means.

Components of the Self

  1. Body & Mind

    • Physical Self (who) vs. Cognitive Self (what).

  2. Observing Self (“I”) vs. Observed Self (“I am this/that”).

    • Wilber: two aspects; ongoing evolution of spirit.

  3. Spirit = divine essence within; union of body & soul (Christian view).

Fundamental Qualities

  • Self-awareness.

  • Capacity for relation.

  • Self-determination (free will + responsibility).

  • Inherent dignity & inalienable rights.

Maslow’s Hierarchy & Self-Transcendence

  • Physiological → Safety → Love/Belonging → Esteem → Self-Actualization → Self-Transcendence (holistic consciousness, ends-oriented relations to cosmos).

Transcendence & Limitations (Aquinas + Abella)

  • Humans uniquely able to change themselves & reality for the better.

  • Transcendence = power to surpass limits via physical & mental capacities.

  • Term roots: trans (“beyond”) + scandere (“to climb”).

Buddhist Eightfold Path (model of transcendence)

  1. Right View

  2. Right Intention

  3. Right Speech

  4. Right Action

  5. Right Livelihood

  6. Right Effort

  7. Right Mindfulness

  8. Right Concentration
    → leads from suffering to goodness & liberation.

Pythagoras’ Classification of People

  1. Lovers of Pleasure (food, play, social media).

  2. Lovers of Success (study, ambition).

  3. Lovers of Wisdom (truth, goodness, beauty).

  • Ideal: balanced pursuit; wisdom as highest.

Perennial Philosophy & Three Modes of Knowing (St. Bonaventure as presented by Wilber)

  1. Sensory Experience (Body) – empirical science.

  2. Reason (Mind) – imagination, logic, will.

  3. Contemplation / Loving Wisdom (Spirit) – transcendent knowledge, compassion.

Practical Reflection Prompts (Learning Activities)

  • Draw pie-graph of personal predilections (pleasure/success/wisdom).

  • Journal on understandings, realizations, values (gratitude, forgiveness, critical thinking).

Ethical & Practical Implications Highlighted

  • Decisions bear consequences (good ↔ good; bad ↔ bad).

  • Rights are inseparable from humanity (“inalienable”).

  • Education & philosophy foster liberation, personal growth, societal betterment.