Operant Conditioning and Learning

Definition: Operant learning, also known as instrumental learning, occurs when a response is followed by a stimulus which serves as a consequence, modifying the probability of the response occurring again.
Major Forms:
- Reinforcement: A consequence that increases the likelihood of the response.
- Punishment: A consequence that decreases the likelihood of the response.

Graphical Representation:
- Antecedents -> Response -> Consequence
- Response is followed by a consequence which is a stimulus affecting the response probability.
Distinction From Classical Conditioning:
- Classical conditioning involves two antecedents (Conditioned Stimulus (CS) and Unconditioned Stimulus (US)) leading to a response.
- The relationship in classical conditioning is between two stimuli (
  CS and US), while in operant conditioning it is between the response and the consequence.

Nature of Behaviors:
- Classical Conditioning: Involuntary behaviors (e.g., salivation in response to food).
- Operant Conditioning: Voluntary behaviors actively influenced by consequences.
Implications for Change:
- You cannot reinforce or punish behaviors that do not occur (operant conditioning requires an action to manipulate).

Key Contributor: B.F. Skinner began studying operant conditioning in the 1940s in the U.S.
Operant Chamber:
- Designed to record rat behaviors in a controlled environment and provide options for reinforcement (e.g., delivering water).

Definition: Shaping is the gradual molding of behavior to achieve a desired outcome.
Process of Shaping:
1. Start with behaviors the animal is already performing.
2. Reinforce small steps towards the target behavior.
3. Gradually increase the criteria for reinforcement to guide the animal toward the desired behavior.
4. Example: Gradually teach a rat to bar press by starting with proximity to the lever and successively reinforcing more specific actions.

Behavior Analysis: This field uses operant conditioning techniques to effect significant behavior changes, especially in children with behavioral problems, such as those with autism.
Example Techniques:
- Reinforcing skills like social interactions, task adherence through gradual shaping of behavior.

Immediate Delivery: Reinforcement must be immediate for effective behavior modification. Any delay decreases the likelihood of the desired behavior being reinforced accurately.
Response Contingent: Reinforcement must only occur when the desired behavior has been exhibited; otherwise, other behaviors may be reinforced inadvertently.

Extinction Phase:
- Occurs when responses are followed by no reinforcement.
- Results in a decay of learned behavior over time, similar to classical conditioning extinction curves.
Spontaneous Recovery:
- Possible resurgence of previously extinguished responses following a break from conditioning.

Reinforcement:
- Positive Reinforcement: Presentation of a favorable stimulus (e.g., getting water after pressing a lever) to increase behavior.
- Negative Reinforcement: Removal of an unfavorable stimulus to increase behavior (e.g., stopping an annoying sound by buckling a seatbelt).
Punishment:
- Positive Punishment: Presenting an unfavorable outcome to decrease a behavior (e.g., adding electric shock for undesirable behavior).
- Negative Punishment: Removal of a favorable condition following a behavior (e.g., taking away privileges for breaking rules).

Primary Reinforcers:
- Items that fulfill biological needs, such as food and water.
- Require deprivation to be effective and can become satiated over time.
Secondary Reinforcers:
- Items that have acquired value through association with primary reinforcers (e.g., money, which can be exchanged for food).
- Do not require deprivation and can be delivered quickly.

Definition: A high-frequency behavior can reinforce a low-frequency behavior.
Application: If a child enjoys video games (high-frequency behavior) and needs to complete homework (low-frequency behavior), access to video games can be made contingent upon completing homework.

Operant learning involves the modification of behavior through consequences, with reinforcement leading to an increase in behavior and punishment leading to a decrease.
Techniques such as shaping allow for systematic behavior modification, effective in both laboratory settings and real-world applications, especially in education and therapies.