European History Study Notes

The exchange of diseases and goods between Afro-Eurasia and the Americas has significant effects.
  - Positive social impact for Europe due to the introduction of nutrient-dense foods from the Americas, especially the potato.
    - Resulted in a population increase back to pre-Black Plague levels.
  - Negative effects on Africa and the Americas, particularly through the establishment of the transatlantic slave trade.
    - Millions of Africans forcibly taken from their homes, transported via the Middle Passage, and compelled to work on plantations in the Americas (sugar and coffee).

The triangular trade system involves mercantilist policies.
- Raw goods shipped from the Americas to Europe, finished goods returned to colonial markets.
- Led to the development of the cottage industry or pudding-out industry in Europe, an early form of assembly line production.
European motivations for exploration summarized by the mantra: Gold, Glory, and God.
- Increased sponsorship of expeditions by European states for land, wealth, and resources fueled conflicts, particularly among Iberian states.
- The Treaty of Tordesillas: An agreement allowing Spain to colonize west of the line of demarcation while Portugal focused on the Indian Ocean.
With new wealth flowing into Europe, financial institutions emerged, such as:
- The Bank of Amsterdam
- The Dutch East India Company.

Economic benefits primarily accrue to emerging elites rather than the average European, who often continues to rely on subsistence farming.
Agriculture becomes commercialized due to enclosures: land parcels being consolidated.
- Expropriation of land drives many rural workers into urban areas seeking employment.
- Resulting social issues include poor sanitation, increased poverty, and crime.

Economic power shifts from the Mediterranean basin to the Atlantic.
- Emergence of a wealthy middle class of merchants in Western Europe.
Contrastingly, serfdom becomes formally codified in Eastern Europe, increasing economic disparities between the two regions.

Radical changes occur due to increases in literacy and access to printed materials.
- Martin Luther's critiques of the Catholic Church outlined in the "95 Theses" initiate the Protestant Reformation.
- Followed by other reformers such as John Calvin, leading to the development of multiple Protestant denominations.
Civil unrest and religious wars ensue, notably:
  - The French Wars of Religion
  - The Thirty Years' War in Central Europe.
    - Catholic Church, historically a unifying force, faces challenges that splinter the unity of European Christendom.

Diplomacy resolves conflicts through the Peace of Westphalia (1648), which:
- Establishes the framework for religious pluralism in Europe.
Comparison to the Edict of Nantes issued by King Henri IV of France allowing freedom for Huguenots (Protestants).
- The edict was effective until revoked under the Treaty of Fontainebleau by King Louis XIV.
The Peace of Westphalia ensured long-term peace in religious matters in Central Europe.

The Protestant Reformation prompts reform within the Catholic Church itself, highlighted by:
  - The Council of Trent, reinforcing its doctrines and practices.
  - Publication of the Index of Prohibited Books, limiting access to certain texts.
  - Jesuits commissioned by the Church as missionaries to regain followers, particularly in Latin America, while also establishing schools, including the efforts of Ignatius of Loyola.
The Catholic Church also moved to fund Baroque art and architecture to express religious emotion and grandeur, particularly notable in projects meant to showcase the Church's glory.

Martin Luther's advocacy for a priesthood of all believers raises questions about women's roles in preaching and education.
- Historically, pursuit of education by women often resulted in allegations of witchcraft.
Ongoing debates regarding women's rights to education and personal agency continue throughout European history.

As religious diversity grows, local governments begin to regulate morality and communal activities.
- Questions arise over the continuity of traditional practices (e.g., carnivals) in the face of new moral regulations.

Summary of developments from 1450 to 1648, establishing key trends and events in early modern European history.
Suggested study strategies include:
- Review terms systematically in study packets, marking unfamiliar concepts for further study.
- Check terms confidently understood to avoid unnecessary repetition in study efforts.

The Renaissance emphasizes humanism, while the upheavals from the Protestant Reformation cause shifts in political dynamics.
- Nobility challenges monarchal power; notable conflicts include the English Civil War and struggles for independence in regions such as the Dutch against Spanish rule.