WEEK 5 TUT MEMORY SYSTEMS
Memory I: Comprehensive Study Notes
Cultural and Course Context
Acknowledgement: Meeting on traditional Whadjuk Noongar country; respect to Elders past, present and emerging; importance of Noongar land, heritage, beliefs.
Course context: Curtin College in association with Curtin University; Introduction to Psychology (IPSY1000): Memory I; Dr Bristi Barkataki; Semester 2, 2025; CRICOS Provider Code 00301J.
Copyright notice: Material copied under the Australian Copyright Regulations; do not remove copyright notice.
Lesson focus: By the end of the lesson, you should be able to describe the three memory processes, the levels of processing in each stage, and memory effects involved in encoding, storage, and retrieval.
Key Concepts: Three-Stage Information Processing Model
Memory is described in three interacting stores/processes (Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1968) and expanded by later models:
Sensory Memory
Working/Short-Term Memory (WM/STM)
Long-Term Memory (LTM)
Encoding, Storage (Retention), and Retrieval are the core memory processes that govern information movement across stores.
Encoding can be either automatic or effortful; storage relates to retention; retrieval is bringing information back into conscious awareness.
The depth of processing (levels of processing) influences how well information is remembered.
Sensory Memory
Brief, large-capacity storage of sensory information before it is processed further.
Durations (typical distinctions):
Iconic memory (visual): < 1 second
Echoic memory (auditory): ~5-10 seconds
The information is not consciously processed yet; sensory input is held briefly to allow selection for attention and further processing.
Decay and interference lead to loss unless encoded into WM.
Working Memory (Short-Term Memory)
Capacity: about 7 ± 2 items (chunks) at a time.
Duration without rehearsal: approximately < 20 seconds.
Conscious, active processing of information.
Components (Baddeley & Hitch, 1974):
Central Executive: Controls flow and processing, retrieves and coordinates information from sensory and LTM.
Visuospatial Sketch Pad: Holds visual and spatial information.
Phonological Loop: Holds auditory information (speech-based data) and rehearsal.
Information processing within WM can be influenced by the type of encoding (visual, auditory, spatial) and the recency of items.
Rehearsal in WM can transfer information to Long-Term Memory (LTM) via encoding
Long-Term Memory (LTM)
Subsystems:
Explicit (declarative) memory: conscious recall
Semantic memory: memory for world facts and knowledge
Episodic memory: memory for personal events and experiences
Implicit (non-declarative) memory: without conscious recall
Procedural memory: memory for know-how and skills
Priming: exposure effects that influence later processing
Conditioning and Habituation: learned associations and responses
LTM is characterized by its large capacity and long duration (often lifelong) and can include both conscious and unconscious processes depending on the subsystem.
Encoding, Storage, and Retrieval Processes
Encoding: Getting information into the memory system; processing into WM/LTM.
Storage: Retaining encoded information over time.
Retrieval: Accessing stored information from memory to conscious awareness or WM.
Encoding and retrieval are influenced by attention, perception, and context.
Encoding is inherently imperfect; some details are lost or distorted over time.
Encoding: Depth and Types
Automatic vs. Effortful Processing:
Automatic Processing: Unconscious encoding of incidental information (e.g., place, time, frequency).
Effortful Processing: Requires attention and conscious effort; can be shallow or deep.
Levels of Processing:
Shallow Processing: Focus on superficial characteristics (e.g., acoustic encoding or visual encoding of pictures); often leads to weaker retention.
Deep Processing: Semantic encoding; focus on meaning; elaboration (linking new information with existing knowledge) leads to stronger retention and easier retrieval.
Semantic Encoding: Central to deep processing; elaboration strengthens encoding into LTM.
Rehearsal and Study Strategies
Rehearsal helps move information from WM to LTM; there are two main rehearsal strategies:
Massed Practice (cramming): less effective for long-term retention
Distributed Practice (spaced study): better retention over time
The effectiveness of rehearsal is enhanced when it involves elaboration and meaningful connections (semantic encoding).
Example discussion prompts from slides: which is better for studying—distributed vs massed practice? generally, distributed is better for long-term retention.
Memory Activity: Serial Position Effect
Task: A list of 20 words is presented; participants perform memory tasks and later recall.
Key phenomenon: Primacy and Recency Effects (Serial Position Effect)
Primacy Effect: Better recall for items at the beginning of the list due to greater opportunity for encoding into LTM.
Recency Effect: Better recall for items at the end of the list due to items still being in WM at the time of recall.
Demonstrations used in class include memory of a list such as: TABLE, NIGHT, RED, LOVE, SALT, HAPPY, NORTH, MOTHER, HIGH, ODD, HATE, FATHER, DAY, GREEN, EVEN, CHAIR, PEPPER, LOW, SAD, SOUTH (20 words) and follow-up recall tasks.
The activity also included a follow-up task where participants performed judgments (e.g., Group A: circle Yes if the word contains the letter E; Group B: circle Yes if the word sounds pleasant) to demonstrate encoding differences and elaborative processing.
Encoding into LTM: Attention, Perception, and Rehearsal
Attention limits: We cannot encode all sensory information; selective attention determines what enters WM.
Perception determines what aspects of sensory input are encoded; different people may encode different features from the same input.
Encoding processes can involve elaboration and semantic processing to improve long-term retention.
Retrieval: Bringing Information to Conscious Awareness
Retrieval is the process of bringing information from LTM into conscious awareness or into WM.
Retrieval is reconstructive: it can incorporate new information and can involve errors or distortions.
Retrieval cues are stimuli that help access memories.
Two main methods of studying memory processes:
Recall: generating previously remembered information on our own
Recognition: selecting previously remembered information from a set of options
Retrieval Cues and Encoding Specificity
Encoding Specificity Principle: Retrieval is more successful when the retrieval context matches the encoding context, i.e., how information was encoded should align with how it is retrieved.
Retrieval Cues: External cues or internal states that aid memory recall; cues can trigger associative networks that lead to the missing information.
Context Effects (external environment): Memory performance is better when the retrieval context matches the learning context.
State-Dependent and Mood Congruent Memory:
State-Dependent Learning: Internal physiological states enhance recall when in the same state as encoding.
Mood Congruent Memory: Tendency to recall experiences that match current mood.
Practical Examples and Classic Studies
Godden & Baddeley (1975): Context-dependent memory study showing better recall when the environment at encoding matches the retrieval environment (e.g., underwater vs. land learning and testing conditions).
Tip-of-the-Tongue (TOT) Phenomenon: Difficulty in retrieving a known word; partial cues or partial recall can help trigger the full memory.
Relearning and Priming as evidence of latent memory:
Relearning: Faster recall on a second exposure indicates information was retained in LTM.
Priming: Prior exposure influences processing of new material, even without conscious recollection.
Studying Tips and Conceptual Guidance
Distributed vs. Massed Study: Space out study sessions; shorter, repeated study blocks lead to better retention than cramming.
Elaborative Rehearsal: Connect new information to existing knowledge; semantic processing enhances encoding.
Levels of Processing: Aim for deep processing to improve retention and understanding of material.
Practical study strategies cited: avoid verbatim copying; write notes in your own words; use meaningful connections to current knowledge.
Summary guidance (from course): Three memory stores (Sensory, Working, Long-Term) and three processing stages (Encoding, Storage, Retrieval); control processes (e.g., attention, rehearsal) govern movement of information within and between stores.
Summary: Core Takeaways
Memory involves three stores and three processing stages: encoding, storage, retrieval.
Sensory memory briefly holds sensory input; working memory processes and holds information for short periods; long-term memory stores vast, long-lasting information.
Working memory comprises the Central Executive, Visuospatial Sketch Pad, and Phonological Loop.
Long-term memory divides into explicit (semantic, episodic) and implicit (procedural, priming, conditioning, habituation).
Encoding depth, elaboration, and semantic understanding lead to stronger memory traces; automatic processing handles incidental information.
Retrieval is reconstruction-based and aided by retrieval cues; contextual and state-dependent factors influence recall.
Effective study strategies include spaced (distributed) practice, deep processing, and elaborative rehearsal.
Classic phenomena in memory include the Serial Position Effect (primacy and recency) and the Tip-of-the-Tongue phenomenon.
Quick Reference: Key Terms and Equations
Working Memory capacity:
WM duration without rehearsal:
Sensory memory durations:
Iconic: <1 ext{ s}
Echoic:
Depth of processing: deep vs shallow processing; semantic encoding leads to better retention than shallow, surface-level encoding.
Encoding Specificity Principle: Retrieval success depends on the match between encoding and retrieval contexts.
Context Effects: External environment; State-Dependent Learning: Internal physiological states; Mood Congruent Memory: current mood influencing recall.
Notes adapted from lecture slides for IPSY1000 Memory I (Curtin University/Curtin College), including Atkinson & Shiffrin (1968) model and Baddeley & Hitch (1974) working memory framework.