Ethics and Moral Philosophy

Key Idea: Philosopher James Rachels argued that in many situations, intentionally killing a person may be morally equivalent to allowing them to die.
- Example Scenario: A doctor has the ability to save a patient (e.g., provide a life-saving treatment) but chooses not to act, similar to another scenario where the doctor actively administers a lethal dose to a patient.
- In both cases, the moral difference is negligible.
- Implication: Morality hinges more on intentions and outcomes than the simplistic distinction between action and inaction.

Dilemma Overview: Heinz is faced with a moral choice: whether to steal a drug he cannot afford in order to save his dying wife.
- Jake’s Response:
- “He should steal it because saving a life is more important than following the law.”
- This response reflects a post-conventional approach, emphasizing principle-based reasoning.
- Amy’s Response:
- “He shouldn’t steal it because stealing is against the law.”
- Amy’s response aligns with a conventional framework, demonstrating rule-based reasoning.

Overview: Understanding Kohlberg’s framework allows one to categorize moral reasoning into six developmental stages, based on the rationale behind moral choices.
- Stages:
- Pre-conventional:
  - Stage 1: Obedience & Punishment — Actions are evaluated based on the avoidance of punishment.
  - Stage 2: Self-interest / Instrumental — Morality is centered on what benefits oneself.
- Conventional:
  - Stage 3: Good Interpersonal Relationships — Morality is defined by gaining approval from others.
  - Stage 4: Maintaining Social Order — Emphasis on law and duty as central to moral thoughts.
- Post-conventional:
  - Stage 5: Social Contract & Individual Rights — Moral reasoning is based on individual rights and justice.
  - Stage 6: Universal Principles — Focuses on universal ethical principles like justice and equality.
- Examples of Placement:
  - A person donates to charity because it makes them feel good reflects Stage 2.
  - A person who refuses to lie even if punished exemplifies Stage 6.

Definition:
- Virtue: A positive character trait facilitating human flourishing (e.g., courage).
- Vice: A negative trait that represents either an excess or deficiency of virtue (e.g., recklessness or cowardice).
Achieving Virtue: Practicing moderation allows one to attain the Golden Mean, the intermediate state between extremes.
Difference from Other Theories:
- Virtue ethics concentrates on one’s character rather than rules (deontological ethics) or the consequences of actions (utilitarianism).
Advantages:
- Promotes personal growth, considers the complexity of real-life situations, and is realistic.
Disadvantages:
- Can be vague, culturally relative, and does not offer explicit guidance for actions.
Example Correlations:
- Courage (Virtue) ↔ Cowardice / Recklessness (Vices)
- Generosity ↔ Stinginess / Extravagance

Definition: The premise where morality is based on commands from God.
Advantages:
- Establishes a clear authority on moral issues and serves as a motivation for moral behavior.
Disadvantages:
- Euthyphro Dilemma: Asks if actions are good merely because God commands them, raising questions about the nature of morality itself;
- Could lead to an arbitrary view of morality, whilst also presuming belief in God.

Definition: Morality is intrinsically linked to human nature and a rational comprehension of human purpose.
Characteristic Feature in Catholic Teaching:
- Moral laws are reflective of God’s eternal law and can be discovered through human reason while aligning with human purpose.
Advantages:
- Provides a universal and reason-based approach that aligns morality with human flourishing.
Disadvantages:
- Variability in interpretation regarding what constitutes ‘natural’ or ‘human purpose’ can lead to rigidity in application.

Explanation:
- Centers on the question: “Is something good because God commands it, or does God command it because it is good?”
Responses and Challenges:
- Good because God commands:
- This suggests that morality may be arbitrary and subject to divine whims.
- God commands it because it is good:
- This implies moral standards exist independently of God’s will, which undermines the Divine Command Theory.

Key Principles:
- First Principle: Each person should have equal basic liberties.
- Second Principle: Social and economic inequalities should only occur if they benefit the least advantaged individuals and are connected to positions accessible to all.
Original Position & Veil of Ignorance:
- A thought experiment ensuring fairness in choosing principles of justice.
- Individuals select principles without knowledge of their own socio-economic status, talents, or wealth, thus reducing bias and promoting impartiality.

Three Components:
- Justice in Acquisition: How individuals justly acquire property initially.
- Justice in Transfer: How property effectively and fairly transfers between individuals.
- Rectification of Injustice: Strategies to rectify holdings that have been acquired or transferred unjustly.