Sources of Ancient Indian History Notes

Objectives

  • Understand different types of sources for reconstructing ancient Indian history.

  • Understand the problems with using literary sources.

  • Differentiate between primary and secondary sources.

  • Recognize different types of religious and non-religious texts and their utility for historians.

  • Understand why archaeological sources are more reliable than literary sources in the Indian context.

  • Understand historical consciousness in early India and the sense of history among Indians.

Introduction

  • History writing is based on various sources and scientific techniques.

  • Absolute dating methods (Carbon-14 dating), environmental studies, and geological analysis verify/correlate sources.

  • Recent discoveries authenticate myths, such as the submerged city of Dwarka.

  • The discovery of 'chariot' remains in Sanauli adds new dimensions to the archaeology of Mahabharata.

  • Archaeology enhances knowledge of the past through scientific analysis.

  • Sources are crucial for reconstructing the past, requiring detailed study and interpretation by historians.

  • Any remnant of the past can serve as a source.

Classification of Sources

  • Sources are classified into:

    • Literary

    • Archaeological

  • Literary sources include Vedic, Buddhist, and Jain literature, epics, Puranas, Sangam literature, biographies, poetry, and drama.

  • Archaeological sources include epigraphic, numismatic, architectural, and other remains from explorations and excavations.

  • Written records are given primacy in Indian history, but archaeological artifacts like temple remains, coins, and pottery are also important.

  • Archaeological evidence is crucial for periods without writing, such as the prehistoric and proto-historic periods.

Primary vs. Secondary Sources

  • Primary sources: Archaeological artifacts, written documents (temple records, palm-leaf manuscripts), inscriptions (on palm leaves, pillars, rocks, copper plates, pot sherds).

  • Secondary sources: Articles, books, or written histories based on primary sources, used by subsequent researchers.

  • Written primary sources:

    • Manuscript sources/Inscriptions

    • Published material

Literary Sources

  • Considerations when studying ancient Indian texts:

    • Why were they composed and for whom?

    • What was their social and cultural context?

    • Texts may represent ideals, not always accurate descriptions of events.

  • Complexities in using texts:

    • Texts composed over long periods require sifting through chronological layers.

    • Language, style, and content must be analyzed.

    • Critical editions of epics (Ramayana, Mahabharata) help identify original cores.

  • Reliability of ancient Indian literature:

    • Much ancient Indian literature is religious (Vedic, post-Vedic, Puranic, Epic).

    • Early Western scholars sought chronology and dates but found fables and rituals.

    • Historical consciousness was embedded and expressed differently in ancient India.

  • Historical consciousness:

    • Ancient India had a strong oral tradition.

    • Hiuen Tsang noted that each kingdom maintained official records.

    • Land-grants and local chronicles recorded genealogies and deeds.

  • Dating challenges:

    • Early Indian literature deals with religion, theology, cosmology, rituals, prayers, and mythology.

    • Periods of composition and compilation vary widely.

    • Texts like Vedas, Upanishads, Brahmanas, Shastras, Sutras, and Puranas are primarily non-secular.

Vedic Literature

  • Earliest known literature from the Indian subcontinent.

  • Veda: Derived from Sanskrit root ‘vid’ meaning ‘to know’; means knowledge.

  • Oral literature (Shruti): ‘Heard’ or revealed texts, passed down through generations with accurate memorization.

  • Vedic Sanskrit: Different from classical Sanskrit with distinct vocabulary, grammar, and pronunciation.

  • Preservation of pronunciation: Elaborate methods (Ghana, Jata, pathas) to preserve original tone and meaning.

  • Impossibility of interpolations: Emphasis on oral transmission prevented changes.

Classes of Vedic Literature

  • Three classes of literary works:

    • Samhitas (collections)

    • Brahmanas

    • Aranyakas and Upanishads

Samhitas

  • Collections of hymns, prayers, incantations, benedictions, sacrificial formulas, and litanies.

  • Four Vedic Samhitas:

    • Rigveda Samhita

    • Atharvaveda Samhita

    • Samveda Samhita

    • Yajurveda Samhita

Rigveda Samhita

  • Knowledge of songs of praise (rik).

  • Consists of 1028 hymns (suktas) in 10 books (mandalas).

  • Books 2-7 are earlier; books 1, 8, 9, and 10 are later.

  • Deals with customs, social norms, and formations.

  • Historians derive themes like pastoral economy, clan-chief (raja) position, status of vish, meanings of bhaga and bali, social classes.

Atharvaveda Samhita

  • Encompasses a range of topics in 20 books.

  • First seven books: Incantations, poems, spells, and charms for healing and curing ailments.

  • Books 13-18: Rites of passage (upanayana, marriage, funerals), royal rituals, and duties of court-priests.

  • Provides information on social and cultural mores of the Vedic period.

  • Includes information on herbs and nature-derived potions as medicine.

Samveda Samhita

  • Knowledge of songs or melodies (saman).

  • Roots of Indian classical music: Sonic and musical dimensions, structure and theory of chants.

  • Musical version of the Rigveda: 75 verses with melodic novelty and borrowed verses from Rigveda.

  • Mentions instruments like Vina (lute).

  • Gandharva-Veda: Upaveda (supplement) with rules and suggestions for playing instruments.

Yajurveda Samhita

  • Knowledge of sacrificial formulas (yajus) for worship-rituals.

  • Rituals: Agnihotra, Vajapeya, Rajasuya, Agnichayana.

  • Agriculture, economic, and social life information.

  • Lists important crops like wheat, rice, barley, sesame, millets, sorghum, kidney-beans.

  • Contains primary Upanishads: Brihadaranyaka, Katha, Isha, Maitri, Taittiriya, Shvetashvatara.

  • Emergence and development of Hindu philosophy schools.

  • Brihadaranyaka Upanishad: Earliest discussions on dharma, karma, and moksha.

Vedangas

  • Six Vedangas for proper understanding of the Vedas:

    • Siksha (phonetics)

    • Kalpa (rituals)

    • Vyakarana (grammar)

    • Nirukta (etymology)

    • Chhanda (metrics)

    • Jyotish (astronomy)

  • Sutra form: Precise prose expression developed by ancient Indians.

  • Panini’s Ashtadhyayi: Book on grammar in eight chapters.

Later Vedic Literature

  • Texts: Brahmanas, Aranyakas, and Upanishads.

  • Brahmanas: Elaborate on Vedic rituals.

  • Aranyakas and Upanishads: Discourses on spiritual and philosophical problems.

Brahmanas

  • Voluminous prose texts containing theological matter.

  • Observations on sacrifice and practical/mystical significance of sacrificial rites and ceremonies.

Aranyakas and Upanishads

  • Aranyakas: Etymologies, discussions, descriptions, and interpretations of Vedic ritual-sacrifices.

  • Aitareya Aranyaka: Consequences of following or violating Vedic prescriptions.

  • Taittriya Aranyaka: Chapter 1 called “Surya Namaskar”.

  • Aranya: Forest or wilderness, meant to be studied in Vanaprastha stage.

  • Upanishad: “Sitting down near”, pupil receiving spiritual wisdom from preceptor.

  • Other connotations: Esoteric doctrine, secret doctrine, mystic meaning, hidden connections.

  • Monier-Williams: “Setting to rest ignorance by revealing the knowledge of the supreme spirit”.

  • Key philosophical aphorisms of Hinduism: Brahman (highest entity) and Atman (soul).

  • Transition from Vedic ritualism to abstract philosophy and spirituality.

  • Synonymously known as Vedanta: Last parts of the Vedas and highest purpose of the Vedas.

  • Arthur Schopenhauer: Upanishadic theosophy as “the production of the highest human wisdom”.

  • Aranyakas: Karma-kanda (ritualistic action).

  • Upanishads: Gyaan-kanda (knowledge production/spirituality).

  • Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam: “The world is one family”, inscribed on the Parliament of India.

  • Gandhi’s vision: Holistic development, respect for all forms of life, non-violence.

  • Atithi Devo Bhava: “The guest is god”, from Taittiriya Upanishad.

  • Panchopchara Puja: Five steps of worship and guest reception.

  • Satyamev Jayate: “Truth alone triumphs”, from Mundaka Upanishad, national motto of India.

Chronology and Historical Value

  • Spans a thousand years, with earlier and later periods.

  • Rigveda (Books II-VII): c. 1500-1000 BCE.

  • Later Vedic literature (Books I, VIII, IX, X of Rigveda; Sama Veda; Yajur Veda; Atharva Veda; Brahmanas; Aranyakas and Upanishads): c. 1000-500 BCE.

  • Historical value: Political, religious, and social data, transition from pastoral to agrarian society, class/caste society, formation of political territories.

Sutras

  • Part of post-Vedic literature, classified as smriti (memorized texts).

  • Composed by humans (great sages), authoritative but not as sacred as Vedas.

  • Manuals on ritualism (c. 600-300 BCE).

    • Shrautasutra: Rules for great sacrifices.

    • Grihyasutra: Directions for simple ceremonies and daily sacrificial acts.

    • Dharmasutra: Instructions on spiritual and secular law, oldest law books.

  • Dharmasutras and Smritis: Rules and regulations for general public and rulers, ancient Indian polity and society constitution/law-books.

  • Compiled between c. 600 BCE-200 CE, Manusmriti is prominent.

Smriti Texts

  • Post-sutra texts: Manu Smriti, Narada Smriti, Yajnavalkya Smriti.

  • Composed between c. 200 BCE and 900 CE.

  • Prescribe duties for different varnas, kings, and officials.

  • Set out rules for marriage and property.

  • Prescribe punishments for theft, assault, murder, adultery.

Kautilya’s Arthashastra

  • Important law-digest on economy and statecraft.

  • Divided into 15 books, Books II and III are earlier works.

  • Deals with polity, economy, and society.

  • Final form in the beginning of the Common era.

  • Earliest portions reflect Mauryan period state and society.

  • Provides rich material for the study of early Indian polity and economy.

  • Kautilya acknowledges debt to predecessors in the field.

Epics

  • Ramayana and Mahabharata (c. 500 BCE-500 CE) as historical sources.

  • Known as Itihaas (“thus it was”) or narratives.

  • Vyasa’s Mahabharata: Older, reflects state of affairs from c. 10th-4th century BCE.

  • Main narrative (Kaurava-Pandava conflict) relates to the later Vedic period.

  • Descriptive portions might be post-Vedic.

  • Didactic portions generally relate to the post-Mauryan and Gupta periods (R.S. Sharma, 2005).

  • Constant interpolations in these works.

  • Historians must carefully sift material and consider different chronological layers.

  • Popular literature regularly performed by the people of India.

  • Interpolations occurred due to story-tellers adding chapters.

  • Ramayana of Valmiki appears more unified than the Mahabharata.

  • Excavations: Sites mentioned in epics have been excavated.

  • Ayodhya excavations: Settlements go back to the Northern Black Polished Ware period.

  • Hastinapur, Kurukshetra, Panipat, Baghpat, Mathura, Tilpat, Bairat excavations date back to the Painted Grey Ware period.

  • Mine of information: Religious sects, integration into mainstream Hinduism, social practices and norms, philosophy.

Puranas

  • Hindu texts attributed to Vyasa, dated to the Gupta and post-Gupta period.

  • 18 Mahapuranas and numerous Upapuranas (supplements).

  • Heterogeneous, encyclopedic works encompassing multifarious topics.

  • Agni Purana (c. 8th-11th centuries CE): Ritual worship, cosmology, astrology, mythology, genealogy, law, politics, education system, iconography, taxation theories, warfare, diplomacy, medicine, architecture, gemology, grammar, metrics, poetry, food, agriculture, geography, cultural history.

Five Branches of Puranas

  • Subject-matter of the Puranas:

    • sarga (evolution of universe/creation of the world)

    • pratisarga (involution of universe/re-creation)

    • manvantara (recurring of time/periods of the various Manus)

    • vamsha (genealogical lists of gods, kings, and sages)

    • vamshanucharita (an account of royal dynasties/life stories of some selected characters)

  • Later additions: Description of tirthas (sacred places of pilgrimage) and their mahatmya (religious importance).

Historical Importance

  • Useful information for reconstructing ancient Indian history.

  • Political history and genealogies of dynasties.

  • Ancient dynasties: Haryankas, Shishunagas, Nandas, Mauryas, Sungas, Kanvas, Andhras.

  • Kings with names ending in ‘naga’ ruled in northern and central India.

  • Dynastic lists end with the Guptas, indicating compilation by c. 4th-6th centuries CE.

  • Later Puranas: Bhagvat Purana (c. 10th century) and Skanda Purana (c. 14th century).

  • Geographical information: Rivers, lakes, mountains, etc., crucial for historical geography reconstruction.

  • Information on the three major cults of Hinduism: Vaishnavism, Shaivism, and Shaktism.

  • Processes: Integration of different cults and emergence of minor cults like Ganpatya, Krishna, Brahma, Karttikeya.

  • Brahmanas spread social and religious values through Puranas.

Sangam Literature

  • Earliest Tamil texts (c. 400 BCE-200 CE).

  • Poets composed short and long poems, patronized by chiefs and kings.

  • Assembled in colleges called Sangams.

  • Three Sangams: 1st and last at Madurai, 2nd at Kapatapuram.

  • Historicity of gatherings is doubted.

  • Some scholars use term “the early classical Tamil literature” (Upinder Singh, 2008).

  • Poems of the first two Sangams are generally rejected as ahistorical but some modern scholars consider of historical value.

Themes and Authorship

  • Poems (30,000 lines): Themes of love and war.

  • Modeled on bardic songs of ancient times, transmitted orally before compilation.

  • Not religious literature.

  • Poets from all walks of life: Teachers, merchants, carpenters, goldsmiths, blacksmiths, soldiers, ministers, and kings.

  • Varied themes and authorship make it a mine of information on everyday life.

Historical Information

  • Describes many kings and dynasties of south India.

  • Mentions kings/heroes by name, details military exploits, gifts to bards and warriors.

  • Possible recitation in royal court, names of kings may refer to historical figures.

  • Chola kings mentioned as donors.

  • Mentions flourishing towns such as Kaveripattinam.

  • Speaks of Yavanas (Greeks) coming in vessels, purchasing pepper for gold, supplying wine and women slaves.

  • Information corroborated by archaeology and foreigners’ accounts.

  • Mention of some kings and events supported by inscriptions.

Biographies, Poetry, and Drama

  • Numerous masterpieces of drama and poetry.

  • Historians used to cull information on the times.

Early Sanskrit Poets and Playwrights

  • Ashvaghosha: Buddhacharita, Sariputraprakarna, Saundarananda.

  • Bhasa: Pancharatra, Dutavakya, Balacharita, Svapna-Vasavadatta.

  • Kalidasa (c. 4th-5th centuries CE): Abhijnana-Shakuntalam, Malavikagnimitram, Vikramorvashiyam, Raghuvamsham, Kumarasambhavam, Meghadutam (insights into social and cultural life of the Guptas).

  • Malavikagnimitram: Based on events of Pushyamitra Shunga’s reign.

Ancient Dramas on Historical Themes

  • Vishakhadatta’s Mudrarakshasa (c. 7th-8th centuries CE): Chanakya wins over Rakshasa (minister of the Nandas) to Chandragupta Maurya’s side, glimpse of society and culture.

  • Devichandraguptam: Incident in Gupta king Ramagupta’s reign.

  • Shudrak: Plays based on historical events.

Narrative Literature

  • Panchatantra (c. 5th-6th centuries CE) and Kathasaritasagara (Ocean of Streams of Stories).

  • Collections of popular folk tales.

Biographies of Well-Known Kings

  • Written by court-poets and writers in praise of royal patrons.

  • Banabhatta’s Harshacharita (c. 7th century CE): Talks about Harshavardhan of the Pushyabhuti dynasty, oldest surviving biography in India.

  • Bana: Adhyayika genre of texts related to the itihasa tradition, hints at fratricidal struggle for the throne.

  • Bilhana’s Vikramankadevacharita (c. 12th century): About later Chalukyan king Vikramaditya VI and his victories.

  • Vakpati’s Gaudavaho: Based on exploits of Yashovarman of Kannauj.

Prominent Biographical Works

  • Kumarapalacharita of Jayasimha

  • Kumarapalacharita or Dvyasryakavya of Hemachandra

  • Hammirakavya of Nayachandra

  • Navasahasankacharita of Padmagupta

  • Bhojaprabanda of Ballal

  • Prithvirajacharita of Chanda Bardai

Rajatarangini by Kalhana

  • Best illustration of history-writing appreciated by modern historians.

  • Critical method of historical research and impartial treatment of historical facts.

  • Kashmiri Brahmin, regarded as Kashmir’s 1st historian.

  • Views on how history ought to be written:

    • Fairness: Impartiality in relating facts.

    • Cite earlier authors.

  • Inspected eleven works of former scholars with chronicles of kings and Purana of sage Nila.

  • Looked at inscriptions recording consecrations of temples and grants by former kings, laudatory inscriptions, and written works.

  • Valuable source of information on early legends, customs, and history of Kashmir.

Buddhist and Jain Literature

  • Non-Brahmanical and non-Sanskritic sources.

  • Written in Pali and Prakrit languages respectively.

  • Prakrit: Form of Sanskrit, early Jain literature mostly in this language.

  • Pali: Form of Prakrit in vogue in Magadha, most of the early Buddhist literature is written in Pali.

  • Ashokan edicts are also in Pali.

Buddhist Literature

  • Tripitakas (“Three Baskets”): Tell us about state of affairs in India at the time of the Buddha and the 16 Mahajanapadas, composed after the death of the Buddha.

  • Common name for Buddhist canonical literature and their commentaries in Pali.

  • Survive in Pali, Japanese, Chinese, and Tibetan versions.

Tripitakas Consists of Three Books

*   the Sutta Pitaka,
    *   Contains the discourses of Buddha on various doctrinal issues in stories, poems and dialogue form.
*   the Vinaya Pitaka,
    *   About 227 rules and regulations for the monks and nuns of the sangha. It includes explanations about the founding of each rule by the Buddha. It contains information about his life, events and the story of Buddhism down to the 1st schism. It was written in 386 BCE.
*   the Abhidhamma Pitaka.
    *   literally “higher Dhamma”) contains matter related to the Buddhist philosophy in accordance with the Theravada school and contains lists, summaries and questions and answers.

  • the Khuddaka Nikaya, a collection of discourses that Contains Theragatha, Therigatha and Jatakas which are important sources for a historian.

  • Jatakas stories (more than 550): About former births of the Buddha (dev, man, animal, fairy, spirit, mythological character), provide glimpse into history of Buddhism and popular Buddhism.

  • Theragatha (“Verses of the Elder Monks”) and Therigatha (“Verses of the Elder Nuns”): Collection of poems, verses narrated by early members of the Buddhist sangha.

  • Therigatha is the 1st surviving poetry in India supposed to have been composed by women, supports view that women are equal to men in spiritual attainment.

  • Milindapanha (“Questions of Milinda”): Non-canonical Buddhist literature, c. 1st century BCE-1st century CE, dialogue between Indo-Greek king Menander and Buddhist monk Nagasena.

  • Sinhalese chronicles Mahavamsha (“Great History”) and Dipavamsha (“History of the Island”): History of Buddhism from the time of the Buddha’s Enlightenment.

Jain Literature

  • Important category of texts in Prakrit called the Ardhamagadhi.

  • Information helps reconstruct history of different regions of ancient India.

  • Digambaras: Jain Shauraseni literature

  • Shvetambara: Two dialects of Ardhamagadhi literature.

  • Mahavira’s teachings: Compiled in 14 Purvas.

  • Sthulabhadra: Convened a great council at Pataliputra and reconstructed the Jain canon in 12 Angas in c. 4th century BCE.

  • Council at Valabhi: Formalized existing texts in written form in c. 5th century CE.

Scriptures accepted by the Shvetambaras:
*   12 Angas
*   12 Upangas
*   10 Prakirnas
*   6 Chedasutras
*   2 Sutras
*   4 Mulasutras

  • Deal with code of conduct, legends, Jain doctrines and metaphysics.

Digambaras

  • Digambaras believe most original Purvas are lost.

  • They use scriptures written by great Acharyas, originals from Mahavira.

  • Can use Jain literature for information on history and doctrine of Jainism, doctrines of the rival schools, life stories of saints, lives of monks in the Jain sangha.

Archaeological Sources

  • Archaeology: Studies material culture to understand the past, close relation to history.

  • Material culture: Sculptures, pottery remains, bone fragments, house remains, temple remnants, floral remains (charred grains), coins, seals, inscriptions.

  • Archaeological evidence permits study of the prehistoric period, proto-historic period.

  • Significant even for periods with written evidence.

  • History of the Indo-Greeks reconstructed solely on coins.

Development of Archaeology in India

  • Utilization of archaeological sources in reconstructing India’s past: Only about two centuries old.

  • Indian civilization believed to have begun from c. 6th century BCE until the 1920s.

  • Excavations at Mohenjodaro and Harappa: Antiquity of Indian civilization goes back to about 5000 BCE.

  • Finds of prehistoric artifacts: Human activities started as early as two million years ago.

  • Indian subcontinent believed to be populated around later part of 1st millennium BCE, archaeology shows populated sparsely and thickly right from the Stone-Age periods.

Methods and Data

  • Archaeological methods: Excavation and exploration.

  • Data on trade, state, economy, societal aspects, religion, and mundane aspects of daily life.

  • Excavations: Data on Palaeolithic, Mesolithic, Neolithic, Chalcolithic, Iron Age, Megalithic, and many other cultures.

  • Harappan script still undeciphered, information about this period obtained from archaeology.

  • Origin, spread, settlement patterns, town planning, trade, polity, economy, agriculture, hunting, crops, agricultural implements, technology, beads, seals, fire altars, religion, and how this civilization declined.

*Archaeological Source: Excavated remains, standing monuments, sculptural reliefs and inscribed records.

Ground Reconnaissance Methods.

*   Consultation of the documentary sources.
*   Place name evidence etc.
*   Aerial surveying including airborne or space-borne remote sensing those sites which can often be missed on the ground can be located.
*   Sites once marked on the landscape can be further compared and systematically studied to arrive at settlement patterns, site formation processes and geo-archaeological analysis.

  • A large number of experts are involved in the study of archaeological artefacts such as

    • palaeontologists (who study fossilized animal bones),

    • palynologists (who study and analyse fossil pollen),

    • geo-archaeologists (who study earth formation and the soil and sediment patterns),

    • archaeo-zoologists (who study, identify and analyze faunal species from sites);

    • ethno-archaeologists (who study living people and tribes to arrive at hypothesis regarding the past) and many more.

Excavation Types

  • Excavations:

    • Vertical

      • reveal stratification, deep deposits.

    • Horizontal

      • emphasize horizontal dimension, open large areas of a particular layer to reveal the spatial relationships between artefacts and features in that layer.

Additional Archaeological Analysis

  • Systematic studying of the artefacts involving lab analysis: Conclusions on past life-ways and events.

  • Material not previously considered important: Burnt seeds, plant material, pollen remains, faunal remains (reconstruct past ecosystem, diet).

  • Teeth and bones of animals and humans: Reconstruct diseases and diet patterns in the past.

  • Dating methods: Assign age to particular artefact.

  • Radiocarbon dating: Most popular for charcoal, wood, seeds, plant material, human and animal bone remains.

  • Other absolute dating techniques: Thermoluminiscence dating (dates pottery, burnt terracotta), Dendrochronology (assigns age to tree rings).

  • Epigraphy and numismatics: Benefit understanding also.

  • Numismatic sources: knowledge of Indo-Greek, Shaka-Pahlava and Kushan kings.

  • Ashoka’s views on dhamma, conquests of Samudragupta found within epigraphs.

Coins

  • Found in excavations or as hoards.

  • Study of coins: Numismatics (2nd most important source for reconstructing history, 1st being inscriptions).

  • Hundreds of thousands of coins in museums.

  • Coins in systematic excavations: Valuable because of precise chronology and cultural context.

  • Metal currency with definite shape, size, and weight standard.

  • Stamp of issuing authority.

  • Obverse: Side carrying the message; reverse: Opposite side.

  • Second Urbanization (c. 6th century BCE) in early Indian history: Literary and archaeological evidence of coinage.

  • Time of emergence of states, growth of towns and cities, spread of agriculture and trade.

  • Coins in early India: Copper, silver, gold, and lead.

  • Coin moulds (Kushan period): Increased commerce during this time.

  • Post-Mauryan coins: Lead, potin, copper, bronze, silver and gold, increased volume of trade.

  • Coins of major dynasties have been catalogued and published.

Coin Types

  • Punch-Marked coins: Earliest coins in the subcontinent, mostly silver and sometimes copper.

  • Symbols punched separately.

  • Found throughout the country: From Taxila to Magadha to Mysore.

  • No inscription or legend.

  • Magadhan type of Punch-Marked coins replaced those issued by other states.

  • Indo-Greek coins: Silver and copper, gold coins are rare, beautiful artistic features.

  • Portrait/bust of the king on the obverse, deity depicted on the reverse.

  • Information about more than 40 Indo-Greek rulers from coins.

  • Shaka-Pahlava kings known from coins.

  • Kushanas issued coins mostly in gold and copper, rarely in silver.

  • Their coins found in most parts of north India up to present-day Bihar.

Coin Designs

  • Imperial Guptas issued mostly gold and silver coins (gold more numerous).

  • Indian influence from the very beginning.

  • Coins of Vima Kadphises: Figure of Shiva standing beside a bull.

  • King calls himself Maheshvara (devotee of Shiva) in the legend.

  • Kanishka, Huvishka, and Vasudeva have this depiction on their coins.

  • Many Indian gods and goddesses depicted on the Kushan coins, besides Persian and Greek deities.

  • Earliest coins: Symbols only.

  • Later coins: Figures of kings, divinities, and dates and names.

  • Western Kshatrapa coins: Dates in the Shaka era.

  • Area of coin circulation: Reconstruct history of ruling dynasties.

  • Political organization: Coins of Yaudheyas and Malavas carry the legend ‘gana’ (non-monarchical form of polity).

  • Image of a ship on the Satavahana coins of the Deccan: Significance of maritime trade.

Gupta Coins

  • Guptas succeeded the Kushanas in the tradition of minting coins.

  • Completely Indianised their coinage.

  • Issued number of gold coins (dinaras were well-executed due-struck coins).

  • Obverse: Reigning king in various poses (hunting a lion or rhinoceros, holding a bow or battle-axes, playing musical instrument, or performing the Ashvamedha Yajna).

  • Coins of Samudragupta and Kumaragupta I: Playing the vina.

  • Post-Gupta period: Gold coins declined in number and purity.

  • Feudalism theory of R. S. Sharma: Debasement of coinage and increased use of cowries point to decline of trade and commerce.

Inscriptions

  • Most important and reliable sources for writing history.

  • Contemporary document, free from later interpolations.

  • Impossible to add something to it at a later stage.

  • No errors or additions as found with birch bark, palm leaf, paper, etc.

  • Study of inscriptions called Epigraphy.

  • Carved on seals, copper plates, temple walls, wooden tablets, stone pillars, rock surfaces, bricks, or images.

Scripts and Languages

  • Oldest inscriptions in the Harappan script of c. 2500 BCE (still undeciphered).

  • Writing carved on the Harappan seals.

  • Earliest deciphered inscriptions are the Ashokan edicts.

  • Found on rock surfaces and stone pillars throughout the subcontinent.

  • Written in four scripts:

    • Aramaic and Greek scripts in Afghanistan

    • Kharoshthi script in the Gandhara region

    • Brahmi script for the rest of his empire

  • Individual letters modified century after century, forms all Indian languages from it.

  • Study of the development of scripts called Palaeography.

  • James Prinsep completed the chart of Ashokan alphabets.

  • Ashokan inscriptions: Record in different regnal years, called Edicts (king’s order/desire).

  • Give glimpse of his image and personality as a benevolent king concerned with the welfare of not only his subjects but also of the entire humanity.

  • Fairly developed script, so writing likely existed in the earlier period too.

  • Potsherds with short inscriptions found in Sri Lanka, c. 4th century BCE.

  • Earliest Sanskrit inscriptions appeared in c. 1st century BCE.

  • Junagarh Rock inscription of Rudradaman: Early example of chaste Sanskrit written in mid 2nd century CE.

  • Early inscriptions were a mixture of Prakrit and Sanskrit, replaced by Sanskrit by c. 5th century CE.

Types of Inscriptions

  • Ashokan inscriptions: Royal orders pertaining to social, religious, and administrative matters addressed to officials or people in general.

  • Lumbini pillar inscription of Ashoka: Commemorative, records his visit to the Buddha’s birthplace.

  • Memorials: Sati stones or hero stones, some carry inscriptions.

  • Donative inscriptions: Record the erection of a temple or shrine, found in the Deccan and south India in the early medieval period.

  • Royal land-grants engraved on copper plates: Record grants of land and other items to the brahmanas and other beneficiaries.

  • Deal with sale or donations of lands to temples, deities, brahmanas, contain details of genealogy of donors and donee, economic information.

  • Land grants, free from taxes to learned brahmanas, called Agraharas.

  • Inscriptions that eulogize patrons begin with a prashasti.

  • Hathigumpha inscription of Kharavela: 1st century BCE-1st century CE king of Kalinga (Odisha).

  • Allahabad Pillar inscription of the Gupta king Samudragupta.

  • Kshaharatas, Shaka-Kshatraps, and Kushanas adopt Indian names within two or three generations, inscriptions show social and religious welfare activities.

  • Sanskrit prime place since the Gupta period.

  • Allahabad Pillar Inscription: Enumerates the achievements of Samudragupta.

  • Most Gupta epigraphs give genealogy, became practice of subsequent dynasties.

  • Inscriptions record construction of a dam, reservoir, tank, well or charitable feeding houses.

  • Junagadh (Girnar) inscription of Shaka ruler Rudradaman: Construction of Sudarshana lake, completion during Chandragupta Maurya, repair in c. 2nd century CE.

  • Miscellaneous types: Labels, graffiti, religious formulae and writing on seals.

Historical Value

  • Good source of political, social, and economic history.

  • Valuable tools for historians: Contemporary events and common people.

  • Spread taken as an indicator of the reigning king’s domain.

  • Contain useful information about genealogy, dynastic details, names of kings missed in main genealogies.

  • Land grants of the Pallava, Chalukya, and Ch

I am sorry, but the request is

I am sorry, but the request is

I am sorry, but the request is