Comprehensive Notes on Islamic Theism

Introduction to Islamic Theism

Events starting in 1979 with the American embassy takeover in Tehran brought Islamic worldview to the forefront in North America and Europe.
Previously, this worldview was prevalent from North Africa to Indonesia but considered a quaint aberration compared to the communism vs. capitalism struggle.
The West couldn't ignore it in foreign policy, but the general populace, even in Europe, largely dismissed its contribution to modern thought.
In the Middle Ages, Islamic scholars preserved and advanced ancient Greek philosophy, influencing Western thought.
This intellectual influence waned by the 17th century.
The Middle East posed a political challenge, but didn't threaten Western worldviews (Christianity, deism, naturalism, existentialism).
The Iranian revolution in 1979, followed by skirmishes in Lebanon and Libya, and the September 11 attacks, made Islam impossible to ignore.
This led to renewed interest in Islam, including specific groups like the Taliban and Al Qaeda.
Popular descriptions of Islam are often polemical and conflicting, making a careful discussion of Islamic theism necessary.

The Uniqueness of Islamic Theism

Theism has been covered previously, so it's important to understand the need to revisit.
It's necessary because not all forms of theism are alike; there's no generic theism in real life.
Worldviews are always context-specific, influenced by heritage and environment.
There are important differences between Christian theism and Islamic theism.
A Christian writer should avoid portraying Islam with the bias that difference from Christianity equates to a flaw.
Conversely, avoid making Islam seem more like Christianity than it is, by overemphasizing superficial commonalities or representing minority views as consensus.
The worth of Islam should not be contingent on its similarity to Christianity.
It's legitimate to point out how Christian theism might resolve difficulties within Islamic theism.
The approach will be to let Islam speak for itself, based on the Quran and Hadith.
Where there are differences among Islamic groups, the more widely held interpretation will be represented or give priority to the more literal reading of the Quran.
This approach is valuable because the Islamic groups dominating the news tend to be more conservative, and this method provides a clearer picture of their worldview.

Basic Islamic Theism: Prime Reality

The fundamental reality is God, Allah, described as monotheistic, infinite, personal, transcendent, imminent, omniscient, sovereign, and good.
Islam emphasizes Allah's oneness, transcendence, and sovereignty.
The inclusion of the Quran in the category of fundamental reality is debated.
"Allah" is the Arabic word for "God" or "the god" (Allah l-lāh).
It is not technically a proper name but is used generically.
Christians in Arabic use "Allah" to refer to the God of the Bible.
The descriptions of Allah reveal differences between Christian theism and Islamic theism.
The study of Allah in Islam is based on the claim that Islam is superior to other religions and that God, as portrayed in Islam, is greater than any other deity.
Islam arose amidst rivalry; Muhammad proclaimed monotheism against the polytheism of Mecca, the Judaism he considered hypocritical, and the Trinitarian monotheism of Christianity he deemed idolatrous and absurd.
Islam defined itself against existing options.

Comparative Impulse in Islam

The comparative impulse in Islam is evident in the phrase "Allahu Akbar."
It's part of the call to prayer repeated five times a day and used as an exclamation.
Usually translated as "God is great," but "Akbar" implies greater (comparative) or greatest (superlative).
Something can be greater without being greatest, and multiple beings can share a superlative.
In Arabic, the ilative form raises the degree of an adjective above all other applications.
Allahu Akbar implies "God is greater than all others" or "God is the one and only supreme being."
At Islam's foundation is the belief that Allah's greatness is understood in contrast to all other inferior beings.
Praise of Allah is often connected to condemnation of false views of God or those who hold them.
Other religions also make contrasts, but not as constantly as the Quran.

Unequaled Greatness of Allah

The unequaled greatness of Allah is the lynchpin.
Anything detracting from his greatness is considered false or offensive.
The worst sin is shirk, translated as idolatry, but literally means "association."
Shirk means to conjoin Allah with any of his creatures, ascribe a partner to him, or understand him to possess limitations.
This rules out notions such as incarnation or direct revelation of God in human form.
Attributes revealed about God cannot be measured by human standards.
For example, Allah is just, but we can't define justice and then think we understand what it means for Allah to be just.
Allah is merciful, gracious, and forgiving, but we can't draw implications about how he should act toward any specific person.
Allah is not unknowable, but it would be presumptuous to infer how he would manifest his attributes in particular cases.

Transcendence vs. Imminence

God is both transcendent (beyond the world) and imminent (present and active within the world).
In Islamic theism, God's transcendence outweighs his immanence.
Any possible relationship with Allah must respect this boundary.
God and humans can never meet on the same plane.
Islam insists on an absolute metaphysical separation of transcendent from temporal.
Christian theism doesn't directly contradict God's transcendence and human finitude.
Christians believe humans can have an intimate relationship with God, knowing him as a brother or father.
The Quran allows us to know of Allah's presence and guidance, but maintains a wider gap between a person's relationship with Allah compared to Christian theism.
In Christian theism, God's indwelling through his spirit (John 14:19, Romans 8:9, 2 Corinthians 6:17) allows for a more intimate relationship than with other people.
Such a statement would be impossible in the Quran.
Christian notions of God's incarnation in Christ or his direct indwelling of believers would bring him too far down to the level of creatures for Islamic theism.
The Quran states that God is close to us, but we need to understand what this means.
Verse 2:186 reassures Muslims of God's presence in struggles, contributing to the Islamic worldview.
The verse occurs amidst rules concerning Ramadan, primarily providing conditions for prayers to be heard during Ramadan.
Muslim apologists sometimes quote Quran 50:16 ("We are nearer to him than his jugular vein") to counter the perception of distance between God and people.
However, the context shows this is a threat, not an assurance of comforting presence.
God's presence in this passage is mediated by two angels.
Sufism, the mystical side of Islam, provides a possible exception.
Sufi teachings emphasize a loving relationship between God and believers, even teaching that a person can attain a direct vision of Allah.
This requires labor and strict adherence to Sufi rules over many years.
It's not a simple decision, but a long process to reach a state of absolute purity.
Sufism doesn't negate the emphasis on God's transcendence because its goal is for the Sufi monk to rise spiritually to experience God, not for God to move downward.
Islam doesn't completely eliminate God's imminence; he regulates the universe and reveals himself throughout history.
The most important revelation is the Quran, but Islam allows for general revelation (Quran 2:164).
Perception of divine clues is limited to those who are wise, i.e., believers in Allah.
Those who see the signs but worship them rather than Allah are condemned.
Revelation shuts the door on agnosticism concerning God's attributes.
We can know some things about Allah, but only generally.
We can know that God is merciful, but not comprehend what this means sufficiently to draw implications from it.

The Quran as Fundamental Reality

The Quran is eternal, existing in heaven as the "mother of the book" (Umm al-Kitab).
When Gabriel commissioned Muhammad, he presented excerpts out of the Umm al-Kitab and commanded him to read and recite.
Muhammad was initially perplexed because he was illiterate, but the angel reassured him that God would give him the ability to read and repeat its content.
Muslims refer to the Quran as a miracle because of this and its perceived perfection in form and content.
The nature of the book behind the book has caused discussion among Muslims.
The major contenders were the Mutazilites and the Asharites.
The Asharites came to be regarded as the dominant school of Sunni theology.
The conundrum concerns its eternality.
If it's an eternal book, then there could be two foundational realities: Allah and the Quran.
The easiest solution is to say that the Quran is created and temporal (Mutizalates), but this reduces the book's authority.
The Asherite position is that the Quran is eternal, but not an independent reality.
The words of the Quran are the thoughts of Allah, and so it has existed as long as God has existed.
The place of the Quran in the life of Muslims is comparable to Christ in Christianity: God's word miraculously come down into the world.
In Christianity, the word became flesh; in Islam, it became a book.
The book is properly applied only in a context of belief and obedience.
The Quran not only contains God's thoughts, but it also mediates God's thoughts to us.
Think of the Quran on two levels: as the content of the mind of God (never accessible to us) and as divine revelation (the only way to have accurate knowledge about God).
It's not necessary to take sides in this debate, but it's important to include the Quran as expressive of the mind of God for some schools of Islam when identifying fundamental reality.

External Reality in Islam

God (Allah) created the universe ex nihilo, and all creatures are responsible to him.
The world is a closed system insofar as nothing happens outside of his divine decrees.
Allah's greatness is shown in his creation of the universe.
His creation is not just material; the plural "worlds" refers to other sacred realms of angels and unseen spiritual beings.
God brought angels and jinn into existence before humans.
The jinn are spirit beings who can be good or evil, and some repented upon hearing Muhammad's message.
Many Muslims see the jinn as malevolent and seek to protect themselves against them.
Allah's method of creation is simply to speak a thing into existence (Quran 3:59, 3:47).
Allah has absolute discretion over the universe.
This doctrine is called Qadar, which means "power" and refers to God's power to know and govern the universe.
There are no surprises for Allah.
Muslim scholars have debated its implications since its first century of existence.
Historically, the two main contenders were the Mutizilites and Asharites, with the Asharite view becoming dominant.
Allah's providence begins with his exhaustive knowledge of every detail about the universe.
This knowledge is maintained in a permanent data bank (Quran 6:59).
Knowledge for God is never just his taking cognizance of certain states of affairs; to know a thing or an event is to control it (Quran 57:22-23).
Some interpretations of Kadr insist that Allah's knowledge encompasses all things and that nothing escapes his knowledge.
Allah has known his creatures before he brought them into existence, assigning their provisions, term of life, utterances, deeds, actions, movements, internal and external affairs, and who is destined for paradise or hell.
Allah has pre-decreed what is to come into existence.
This requires believing in the pen which records all the divine decrees and in the preserved tablet from which the decrees are recorded.
The will of Allah is effective, and his capacity is inexhaustible and inclusive.
Whatever Allah wills does take place, and whatever he does not will does not take place due not to incapacity rather to his infinite wisdom.
There is nothing that frustrates the capacity of Allah.
A picture emerges that may seem paradoxical, but is rational.
We cannot go too far in stressing Allah's transcendence, and he is not to be associated with any finite being in the world.
God not only sees every detail of the world, he also does not permit anything to happen outside of his specific plan.
The latter statement leads many Muslims to believe that God directly manages all events.

Differences with Christian Theism

Christian theism is an open worldview.
God has created a universe that incorporates uniform laws, and he has endowed human beings with the opportunity to exercise genuine creativity within the world he created.
Islamic theism adds another restriction beyond the limits intrinsic to the universe.
Whatever creativity creatures may possess, they can exercise it only insofar as Allah permits it according to his inscrutable will.
Islamic theism ultimately leaves us in a closed universe in which God's will sets the boundary for what any creature can do as a causal agent.

Human Beings in Islam

Human beings are the pinnacle of God's creation, given abilities of which other creatures (angels and jinn) are not capable.
Their high standing brings the responsibility to live up to God's standards.
Islam does not have a low view of human beings.
When God set out to create Adam, he called a general meeting of spiritual beings and announced his intention.
The angels questioned Allah's wisdom, claiming they had been praising God faithfully all along and asked why he would put another creature above them, particularly one prone to mischief.
Allah's reply that he knew something of which the angels were ignorant took on concrete meaning.
God personally educated Adam in how to identify the creatures on earth and plants, animals, and objects in nature.
God challenged the angels to give the proper labels to the various items in creation, but they failed.
God brought out Adam, and he was able to do what they could not.
The angels took back their criticism, acknowledging Allah had not made a mistake in creating such a wonderful being.
God commanded all the angels to bow down before Adam, and they bowed down, except for Iblees, who refused and was haughty.
Iblees became Satan, a fallen spiritual being (a jinn) who would not obey God.
The specific occasion for his rebellion occurred not in rebelling against God's superiority per se, but in refusing to demonstrate the superiority of human beings over him.

The Story of Adam and Eve

God placed Adam and his wife (name not mentioned) into a garden and commanded them not to eat of a certain tree.
Satan persuaded them into disobedience, and they were expelled from the garden.
This version has a relatively quick happy ending.
Adam learned words of inspiration from his lord, and his lord turned toward him, restoring him to fellowship.
There was no permanent curse, Adam did not remain a fallen creature, and humankind was not beset with heritable original sin.
We are God's representatives on earth, higher than any other living creatures, and, in contrast to Christian belief, our nature is not corrupted by Adam's fall.
We are born in a state of purity and innocence, implying that any newborn comes into the world as a Muslim.
It is now our obligation to live up to our standing.
To be born pure does not guarantee that we shall remain pure: “O ye people, adore your guardian, Lord, who created you and those who came before you, that you may have the chance to learn righteousness.” (Quran 2:21)
Privilege implies responsibility, and the stakes are high.
Islam sees each human being spending a lifetime on probation.
It is one thing to acknowledge God as the greatest with mere words; it is another to live one's entire life in submission to him.
This is the test for whether a person will qualify for salvation.
Faith places the Muslim on the straight path, but acts demonstrate commitment and faithfulness.
In Islam, the purpose of life is not simply to affirm, but to actualize.
Not simply to profess a belief in God, but to realize God's will, to spread the message and law of Islam.
Faith without works is empty, without merit.
The book of deeds will be the basis for divine judgment.
We have been given the rank as the second highest being in the universe and have been born in the state of purity.
We may even have the advantage of living in a culture where Islam is taught and practiced, but none of that means anything unless we devote our lives to the service of Allah and the teachings of Muhammad.
If we do not pass the test, then our destination will be hell.

Death in Islam

Death is a transition between this life and our eternal state, which will consist of either paradise or hell.
There are two answers to the question of what happens at death: one concerning the physical remains and one concerning the soul, but the two are interrelated.
Proper observance of burial customs contributes to the fate of the soul after death.
Sometime in the future, the deceased will face an interrogation by the two angels, Munkar and Nakir, and anything that survivors can do to help the deceased give the proper answers will increase their chances of entering paradise.
It is good to encourage a person right before he dies to say the confession: "There is no God but God, and Muhammad is the prophet of God." If this is no longer possible, those at the funeral will repeat it on behalf of the deceased.
The corpse must be washed and transformed into a state of ritual purity and buried lying on the right side facing in the direction of Mecca.
These outward physical measures have their purpose in guiding the soul into being fully prepared for the upcoming judgment at the end of time.
Eventually, there will be the last day on which all the dead will be raised to face judgment.
What happens in the interval immediately after death and before the resurrection and the judgment is debated.
Some Muslims hold that the soul will simply sleep peacefully until that time.
Others believe that between death and resurrection, there will be a period of spiritual purgation in which postmortem suffering will purify the soul so as to become fit for heaven.
When the resurrection takes place, all human beings will be called to stand before the divine tribunal, and all their beliefs, attitudes, and actions during their lifetime will become the basis for judgment.
Every human being will have accumulated a book of their deeds, both good and evil, during their mortal lives.
No one can be fully sure that they have enough good to outweigh any bad and so be assured of going to paradise.
The three exceptions are martyrs, children before puberty, and those who are mentally impaired.
To claim assurance for salvation implies that one can dictate to Allah what he must do, which is considered inappropriate.
The more conscientious and God-fearing one is, the more he is aware of his own shortcomings and weaknesses.
The Muslim, knowing that God alone controls life and death, tries to send on ahead for his future existence such deeds as will merit the pleasure of his Lord, with hope for his mercy and grace.
When the last day arrives, there will no longer be any ambivalence.
As soon as Allah has established his verdict, an angel will hand the person the book of his deeds.
The human being will recognize his fate by the hand in which the angel places the book.
If he puts it into his right hand, he knows he has experienced Allah's mercy and will be allowed to enter paradise.
If the angel places the book into a person's left hand, the time will have come for him to reconcile himself to living in hell.

The Koranic Descriptions of Hell and Heaven

The tortures of hell are described as something horrible for a desert nomad.
Hell is a place of hot, odoriferous, poisonous water in which the unbeliever will have to endure tortures.
Heaven is a desert nomad's ideal place of delight: an oasis with fresh water, luscious green plants, handsome boys serving the best to eat and drink, and the beautiful Huri, enticing, dark-eyed virgins.
The description of heaven given in the Quran is geared to men.
However, women are eligible for heaven.
The Quran says of the faithful believers that they are headed for gardens of perpetual bliss; they shall enter there as well as the righteous among their fathers, their spouses, and their offspring.
Angles shall enter unto them from every gate with a salutation: “Peace unto you for that you persevered in sex would be the counterpart of bliss for their sex."

Knowledge in Islam

Allah has endowed human beings with the capability of knowledge by means of reason and the senses.
They can also know God's revelation, but God's sovereign decrees limit human knowledge.
Humans have greater intelligence than angels and jinn.
Human senses are reliable sources of information, and reasoning skills are trustworthy.
Islam is rationalistic.
This conclusion is based on the verse in the Quran that forbids conversion by force: “Let there be no compulsion in religion. Truth stands out clear from error. Whoever rejects evil and believes in God hath grasped the most trustworthy handhold that never breaks. And God heareth and knoweth all things.” (Quran 2:256)
Human reason is sufficient to discern truth from falsehood.
We are capable of a rational approach to the world, and we need not abdicate our rationality when it comes to matters of religion.
We need to use our potential to prove our devotion to Allah by living up to His standards, and the stakes are extremely high: eternal bliss or eternal torment.
Our reasoning ability would be useless if we did not have the necessary information to apply it.
Around the globe, every group of people has had one or more messengers from God who taught them the same precepts as Muhammad did.
There is no definitive list of all the prophets prior to Muhammad, but the various listings include numerous Old Testament figures such as Adam, Noah, Abraham, Lot, David, and Jonah, as well as both Isaac and Ishmael to mention just a few.
The prophet with the highest standing other than Muhammad himself is Abraham, followed by Jesus.
The Quran denies Jesus's crucifixion and divine nature but affirms his virgin birth, teaching, healings, and miracles.
The Quran also mentions prophets outside of the Bible whom God sent to their people in their day (Hud to the Ayad, Salih to the Talmud, and Shiyad to the Midianites).
Whatever should be known could be known easily by simply listening to the prophets.
Human beings are prone to give in to temptations and to fall into unbelief.
Each of the previous prophets encountered the same obstacle.
Even though it turned out to be to their own detriment, the people mocked them and rejected them.
Every day that Noah spent building the ark, his contemporaries mocked him. So The Prophets are a clear source of knowledge, and the fact that the people did not submit to Allah is due to their evil, not to a lack of sufficient information.
Among the prophets were a few who were even more distinguished. These were the messengers who also left books of their teachings for posterity.
Moses brought the law, David brought the Psalms, and Jesus brought the gospel, but unbelieving people corrupted their writings.
Their clear messages from God, which might have survived in writing even if their original errors had been rejected, became distorted in their written forms as well.
With the coming of Muhammad, he was considered to be the seal of the prophets, and what distinguishes Islam is the belief that his message (as recorded in the Quran) was preserved free from error or human interference.
There is no need for any further prophets, and however much the message may have been obscured previously, it should now be clear and accessible to everyone.
The people of the book are encouraged to believe and do well.
The evidence for the authority of the Quran is the Quran itself.
People who already believe in Islam consider the Quran to be self-authenticating.
Those who reject Muhammad and claim that the Quran is a forgery are challenged by the nature of the Quran itself.
The message has been delivered, and there should be no excuse not to accept it.

Revelation and the Will of God

Clear revelation does not imply automatic acceptance of the revelation.
Verses teach that those committed to unbelief will not change their minds, no matter how strong the evidence may be.
Despite the conclusions above, the parts that are missing certainly complicates the picture. The parts that I left about include, but we have thrown veils on their hearts, if it were God's will, he could gather them together until true guidance, whom God will have, we leave it to wander. Whom he will have, he plasteth on the way that is straight.
Those who do not believe will also be kept from doing so by God.
Belief and unbelief ultimately depend on God's will.
If our will is disinclined to believe God's revelation, we can expect little help from God.
Allah may be merciful at his preference, as he was to Adam, but as a general rule.
Although human beings have a choice whether to obey Allah or not, the choice is not open ended.
God classifies each person into one of two groups: those who are believers and those who are his enemies.
Once people have fallen into the second category, God will not only refuse to aid them, he will use his power to make sure that they remain deluded in their unbelief.
In Christianity, even though we already were enemies of God due to our fallen nature, God loved us and made peace with us because of Christ's death on the cross.
On the other hand, in the Quran the god is an enemy to those who reject faith.
Regardless of how much agency we ascribe to God's creatures, all their actions are bracketed by his will.
The Quran promises occasions in which one will intentionally provide opportunities for believers to demonstrate that they accept his plans as final, but give glad tidings to those who patiently persevere.

Morality in Islam

Right and wrong are based on the teachings of the Quran as amplified by the hadith and interpreted by the schools of law, the Sharia.
There is nothing left for us to do than to try our best to follow all God's commandments.
Rather than search for God's purposes, we should accept whatever he sends out waybill a cape, which means without asking why.
Any statement of intentions on our part should be accompanied by the phrase, inshallah, if God wills, a phrase that can express reliance on God and is also taught for Christians in James four fifteen.
Our obligation is not to outthink Allah, but to do his will.
The source of knowledge about what is right or wrong, as already indicated, is the Quran.
In case there should be some ambiguity concerning how a particular commandment should be interpreted, one can consult the hadiths, which are several collections of sayings and actions by Muhammad as allegedly remembered by those who knew him.
Quite a few of these recollections are attributed to Asia, his very young wife who turned in a spunky young widow and was not above disputing with the caliphs themselves.
Even though it is accepted practice to use the expression hadith in the singular, there is no single authoritative collection and the various components are of uneven authority.
Consequently, they're developed among Sunni Muslims four schools of Islamic law, Sharia that advocated different degrees of strictness in applying the rules of the Quran and their relationships of the hadith.
Of the four, the one that adheres most strictly to the most literal applications of the Quran is the Hanbalid School, among its heritage is the Wahhabite Reform Movement, which in turn gave rise to the Taliban in Afghanistan, One of the so called fundamentalist movements of Islam.
The obligations for a Muslim begin with the five pillars: to recite the confession, there is no God but Allah to pray five times a day, to fast during the month of Ramadan, to give the annual contribution for the poor, and to make the pilgrimage to Mecca at least once in a lifetime, the beginning, Muslim life is strictly regulated.
Those that are directly commanded for are, those that are permitted are hell out and those that are prohibited is here I am of course, am violation of is and not to carry out the obligations that are for is also.
I'm mentioning this logical truism, because a negative mindset is the most common result among human beings who believe that their eternal destiny is based on keeping rules. When everything is writing on one's actions, and when there is no assurance of God's indulgence, let alone any grace, avoiding the potentially negative consequences of any sin is bound to become the primary incentive for one's actions, rather than the positive motivation of keeping the rules out of gratitude.

History in Islam

Human history has significance in demonstrating the absolute sovereignty of God, but even more so, as the opportunity for people to demonstrate their submission to him.
Human history is the world's longest final exam, and the test starts right along with the lectures.
The goal of history is to subsume the entire world under the Ummah, the Islamic community, which is a political entity and a congregation of believers.
The question is, what are you expected to do in the meantime?
For example, in Christianity, believers are exhorted to submit to rulers even if they are pagan. Even though many Christians look forward to Christ's government on earth during that millennium, only God himself will bring about this end.
Until then, we should do what we can to promote justice and peace while we wait for God to bring things to a conclusion by his own power.
Islam comes with a mandate to set up Islamic governments, and it is never fully implemented unless there is an Islamic state.
In this state, there will be no idolatry permitted, but the people of the book are tolerated as long as they pay the Jizya, which is a compensation required of Christians and Jews for enjoying the benefits of living in a Muslim community without contributing to it.
Many Muslims believe that the Mahdi will appear. There are traditions concerning this figure, and Shai Islam. He is the 12th Imam went into seclusion in remote cave in 878 until the time will come for him to disclose himself again. Islam the identity is less specific.
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Core Commitments in Islam

A devout Muslim is grateful to Allah for providing the opportunity to serve him and will strive to follow the divine instructions in even the smallest part of life.
Muslims refer to the teachings of the Quran as good news.
Islam has neither the doctrine of original sin by which all human beings are condemned from birth on, nor is there a doctrine of salvation by grace according to which our works are not instrumental in contributing to our salvation.
Muslims tend to find the idea of free salvation irresponsible, and even without the notion of original sin, they are sufficiently convinced of human sinfulness that they consider any chance at salvation at all to be a true act of mercy on God's heart.
All but one of the surahs, number nine of the Quran begins with the expression, in the name of Allah, the most gracious and most merciful.
They see the fact that they must live up to divine standards in order to receive salvation not as a burden, but as an opportunity still, Islam demands of the person can be an anything less. In the standards for a truly acceptable life are high and become extremely detailed the more one seeks to implement them according to the hadith.
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