STM 009: Research in STEM

INTRODUCTION TO RESEARCH/CAPSTONE PROJECT: SELECTING A SCIENTIFIC PROBLEM

STM 009 (SAS 1)

KAAGAPAY SWUDENTS CIRCLE

• an integrating and culminating experience for students
• you will apply all that you have learned from the beginning so that you can either answer a research question, or develop a product, or to solve a problem in the community
• more like the investigatory project you have performed in high school

• Select and define a problem.
  • identify a scientific problem or question
  • differentiate applied and basic research problems
  • example or implementation:
    • Subject Area: Education
    • Problem: The effect of social media usage to academic performance of Senior High School students
• Review the Scientific Literature.
  • review, digest, and concisely state the relevance of the studies cited
  • set selection criteria for studies relevant to a chosen scientific problem
  • example or implementation:
    • Textbooks and references from the library, searching the Internet, published academic journals. periodicals etc.
• Formulate Hypothesis.
  • formulate possible outcomes of the investigation
  • example or implementation:
    • Hypothesis: A higher social media usage results to lower academic performance.
• Design Methodology.
  • design a strategy or sequence of steps that will address the scientific question at hand
  • example or implementation:
    • Experimentation, Case Study, Survey. Correlation Study, etc.
• Collect Data.
  • select appropriate methods of data collection
  • develop the criteria that will address the completeness of the data collection method
  • example or implementation:
    • Age, gender, grade level, social media use per hour, quiz scores, exam scores, periodic grades, etc.
• Analyze Data.
  • analyze the data obtained from the investigation
  • example or implementation:
    • Respondents with 3 hours and above of social media usage have periodic grades ranging 60-70.
• Conclusion and Recommendations.
  • draw logical conclusions supported by processed data
  • make recommendations that are relevant to the study
  • example or implementation:
    • Conclusion: There is a strong relationship between social media usage and academic performance.
    • Recommendation: The researcher recommends doing a deeper study among college students.
• Panel Defense.
  • write a complete scientific report/paper and defend the science project before a panel

SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE REVIEWS

STM 009 (SAS 3)

KAAGAPAY SWUDENTS CIRCLE

• one of the best tools you will find for generating ideas
• a visual thinking tool that helps structure information, helping you to better analyze, comprehend, synthesize, recall and generate new ideas
• an effective graphical way to represent concepts, it gives you the freedom to navigate the full range of your brain capacities as it controls and makes use of your cortical skills (word, image, number, logic, rhythm, color and spatial awareness), in a single, uniquely powerful manner
• can be applied to every aspect of life where improved learning and clearer thinking will enhance human performance

1. Start at the center
2. Use an image or picture for your central idea
3. Use colors throughout
4. Connect main branches to main idea
5. Be sure to use curve lines
6. Use one key word per line
7. Use images all throughout

• signposts direct travelers to a certain direction and prevent them from getting lost
• In writing, signposts tell the reader where the exposition is heading so they don't feel lost
• guide both the writer as well as the reader
• writers who don't put signposts in their writing, generally, don't themselves have a clear idea of where they are trying to take the reader, what their purpose is for a section of writing, and so tend to get both their readers and themselves lost and write descriptively rather than analytically

• Major signposts that signal key aspects of the work, such as purpose, structure, author's stance, main points, direction of the argument, conclusions.
  • example:
    • The aim of this study is to…
    • The purpose of this thesis is to…
    • This essay argues that…
    • The main questions addressed in this paper are…
    • This essay critically examines…
    • The above discussion raises some interesting questions.
    • This paper begins by… It will then go on to…
    • Finally, …
    • This chapter reviews the literature…
    • In conclusion, …
• Linking words and phrases that show connections between sentences and paragraphs.
  • example:
    • Listing:
      • first (ly)/ second (ly), finally
    • Indicating addition or similarity:
      • also/ besides/ in addition/ furthermore/ as well/ similarity
    • Indicating contrast:
      • however/ nevertheless/ on the other hand
    • Giving a reason:
      • for this reason/ because/ because of/ due to
    • Indicating result or consequence:
      • therefore/ thus/ as a result/ consequently
    • Reformulating an idea:
      • in other words/ to put it simply/ that is
    • Exemplifying:
      • for example/ for instance/ to exemplify

• draw conclusion/ make an inference
  • therefore, consequently, thus, thereby, hence
• justify/explain
  • because, since
• provide a contrasting or opposing view/critique
  • although, however, while, in contrast
• provide illustrative or supporting evidence
  • for example, such as
• make an additional supporting point or provide additional supporting evidence
  • in addition, moreover, furthermore
• argue that another case is the same as the one you just discusses
  • similarly, equally, likewise
• Major signposts are usually used to start a paragraph while linking words and phrases are usually used in between sentences or words.

APA FORMATTING

STM 009 (SAS 4)

KAAGAPAY SWUDENTS CIRCLE

• American Psychological Association (APA)
• a writing style and format for academic documents such as journal articles and books
• described in the style guide of the American Psychological Association (APA), which is titled the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association
• the guidelines were developed to aid reading comprehension in the social and behavioral sciences, for clarity of communication, and for "word choice that best reduces bias in language"
• was first developed in 1929
• other widely used writing styles include AMA and CSE

Stage 1: Before Note Taking

1. Read generally on your identified research topic/problem so you can limit it (for example, the subject "team cohesion" may be limited to "How do team social cohesion / integration impact team performance?")
2. Compile a list of books and articles you intend to use. The bibliographical information about these texts should be recorded in a separate file.
3. Make a tentative outline of the paper with your major and minor topics indicated so that you will know exactly which notes you should take.

Stage 2: Actual Note Taking

1. Be brief. Note important ideas, statistics, proper names, definitions, and only enough other information.
2. Do not merely transfer information from the text to your notes. Write notes in your own words except for a few passages you intend to quote exactly.
3. Follow the major topics of your outline. Take only notes that come under one of your major topics. You may decide that you need to add one or two topics to your list, but don't let your list get too long (Use attached note taking sheet)

Stage 3: After Note Taking

• Check your outline; you may need to make certain revisions in it now that you have completed the research.
• Use the outline to create your theoretical framework and Review of Related Literature and Studies.
• You may repeat the whole process to have a more comprehensive review of related literature.

• APA requires that information be cited in 2 different ways - within the text and in a reference list at the end of the paper.

WITHIN THE TEXT

• APA uses the author-date method of citation. The last name of the author and the date of publication are inserted in the text in the appropriate place.
• When referencing or summarizing a source, provide the author and year. When quoting or summarizing a particular passage, include the specific page or paragraph number, as well.
• When quoting in your paper, if a direct quote is less than 40 words, incorporate it into your text and use quotation marks. If a direct quote is more than 40 words, make the quotation a free-standing Indented block of text and DO NOT use quotation marks.

REFERENCE LIST AT THE END OF THE PAPER

• The reference list should be on a new page, double spaced, and use the hanging indent method (all lines after the first one are indented).
• In general, references should contain the author name, publication date, title, and publication information. Include the issue number if the journal is paginated by issue.

• One work by one author
  • In one developmental study (Smith, 1990), children learned…
  • In the study by Smith (1990), primary school children…
  • In 1990, Smith’s study of primary school children…
• One work with 2 authors
  • cite both names every time you reference the work in the text
• One work with three to five authors
  • cite all the author names the first time the reference occurs and then subsequently include only the first author followed by et al.
  • for example:
    • First citation: Masserton, Slonowski, and Slowinski (1989) state that…
    • Subsequent citations: Masserton et al. (1989) state that...
• 6 or more authors
  • cite only the name of the first author followed by et al, and the year.
• Has no named author
  • cite the first few words of the reference entry (usually the title)
  • use double quotation marks around the title of an article, chapter, or Web page
  • italicize the title of a periodical, book, brochure, or report
  • for example:
    • The site seemed to indicate support for homeopathic drugs ("Medical Miracles, 2009).
    • The brochure argues for homeschooling (Education Reform, 2007).
• Two or more works in the same parenthetical citation
  • should be listed in the order they appear in the reference list (i.e., alphabetically, then chronologically)
  • for example:
    • Several studies (Jones & Powell, 1993; Peterson, 1995, 1998; Smith, 1990) suggest that…
• Specific parts of a source
  • always give the page number for quotations or to indicate information from a specific table, chart, chapter, graph, or page
  • the word page is abbreviated but not chapter
  • for example:
    • The painting was assumed to be by Matisse (Powell, 1989, Chapter 6), but later analysis showed it to be a forgery (Murphy, 1999, p. 85).
• If, as in the instance of online material, the source has neither visible paragraph nor page numbers, cite the heading and the number of the paragraph following it. This allows the reader to locate the text in the source.
  • for example:
    • The patient wrote that she was unimpressed by the doctor's bedside manner (Smith, 2006, Hospital Experiences section, para. 2).

• The reference list should be on a new page, double spaced, and use the hanging indents method (all lines after the first one are indented)
• In general, references should contain the author name, publication date, title, and publication information Include the issue number if the journal is paginated by issue.
• For information obtained electronically or online include the DOI.
  • DOI - a unique alphanumeric string assigned to identify content and provide a persistent link to its location on the internet. The DOI is typically located on the first page of the electronic journal article near the copyright notice. When a DOI is used in your citation, no other retrieval information is needed. Use this format for the DOI in references doixxxxxxxxx.
• If no DOI has been assigned to the content, provide the home page URL of the journal or of the book or report publisher. Do not insert a hyphen if you need to break a URL across lines; do not add a period after a URL, to prevent the impression that the period is part of the URL.
• In general, it is not necessary to include database information. Do not include retrieval dates unless the source material has changed over time.
• Book
  • Strunk W. Jr., & White, E. B. (1979). The guide to everything and then some more stuff. New York, NY: Macmillan.
  • Gregory, G., & Parry, T. (2006). Designing brain-compatible learning (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA Corwin
• Chapter of a Book:
  • Bergquist, J. M. (1992). German Americans, In J. D. Buenker & L A. Ratner (Eds.), Multiculturalism in the United States: A comparative guide to acculturation and ethnicity (pp. 53-76). New York, NY Greenwood
• Journal Article with DOI:
  • Paivio A. (1975). Perceptual comparisons through the mind's eye. Memory & Cognition, 3, 635-647 doi: 10.1037/0278-6133.24.2.225
• Journal Article without DOI (when DOI is not available):
  • Becker, LJ & Seligman, C (1981). Welcome to the energy crisis. Journal of Social Issues, 37(2), 1-7 Hamfi, A G. (1981). The funny nature of dogs. E-Journal of Applied Psychology. 2(2). 38-48

Retrieved from http://ojs.lib.swin.edu.au/index.php/fdo

• Online Newspaper Articles:
  • Becker, E. (2001, August 27). Prairie farmers reap conservation's rewards. The New York Times. Retrieved from http://www.nytimes.com
• Encyclopedia Articles:
  • Brisin R. W (1984) Cross-cultural psychology In R. J. Corsini (Ed), Encyclopedia of psychology (Vol. 1. pp 319-327) New York, NY: Wiley.
  • Developmental genetics (2005) In Cambridge encyclopedia of child development Retrieved from http:/ www.credareference.com.library.muhlenberg.edu:80/entry/cupchilddev/developmental_genetics
• Technical and Research Reports (often with corporate authors)
  • Hershey Foods Corporation (2001, March 15) 2001 Annual Report. Retrieved from http www hershey's annualreport.com/2000/index.htm
• Book Reviews:
  • Dent-Read C. & Zukow-Goldring, P. (2001) Is modeling knowing? [Review of the book Models of cognitive development by K. Richardson). American Journal of Psychology, 114, 126-133.
  • NOTE: For articles that have a DO!, see Journal Article with DOI example
• Data Sets:
  • Simmons Market Research Büreau (2000). Simmons national consumer survey [Data file] New York, NY Author
• Blog post:
  • Lincoln, D. S. (2009, January 23). The likeness and sameness of the ones in the middle [Web log post) Retrieved from http://www.blogspace.com/lincolnworld/2009/1/23.php
• Website with no author or date of publication:
  • Census data revisited (n.d.) Retrieved March 9, 2009, from Harvard, Psychology of Population website, http://harvard.edu/data/index.php
  • Do not include retrieval dates unless the source material may change over time. If no DOI has been assigned to the content, provide the homepage URL.

FORMULATING THEORETICAL AND CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

STM 009 (SAS 5)

KAAGAPAY SWUDENTS CIRCLE

• serve as your guide on what you will only read from the sources you have gathered
• will narrow down your search to only the most important concepts and theories developed by other people on your sources
• aspects as a basis for developing your theoretical framework:
  • as you start reading the literature, you will soon discover that the problem you wish to investigate has its roots from a number of theories that have been developed from different perspectives
  • the information obtained from different books and journals now (a) needs to be sorted under the main themes and theories, (b) highlighting agreements and disagreements among the authors and sources and (c) identifying the unanswered questions or gaps
  • literature deals with a number of aspects that have a direct or indirect bearing on your research topic

• Review
  • review important, significant and relevant literature on your subjects of interest
• Outline
  • outline of topics and theories explaining the relationship
• Relate
  • relate the theories in a way that it conveys the structure and boundaries of the study

• the basis of your research problem
• stems from the theoretical framework and usually focuses on the section/s which becomes the basis of your study
• whereas the theoretical framework consists of the theories or issues in which your study is embedded, the conceptual framework describes the aspects you selected from the theoretical framework to become the basis of your inquiry

• Choose a theory for the study
  • the theory will allow you to identify important variables that you can measure or manipulate
• Identify the variables
  • variables are anything that varies or changes its value, which means it is something that can be measured
• Construct the paradigm using the variables
  • basically, it is just transferring the variables you pointed out to a schematic diagram

• Independent Variable
  • will be the factors that you will measure that affects the DV
  • variable believed to affect the DV
  • the variable that you, the researcher, will manipulate to see if it makes the DV change
• Dependent Variable
  • will determine the outcome of your study
  • the variable the researcher is interested in

HYPOTHESIS TESTING

STM 009 (SAS 6)

KAAGAPAY SWUDENTS CIRCLE

• once you have generated the hypotheses, the process of hypothesis testing becomes important
• for testing, you will be analyzing and comparing your results against the null hypothesis, so your research must be designed with this in mind
• it is very important that the research you will design produces results that will be analyzable using statistical tests
• designing your research only needs a basic understanding of the best practices for selecting samples, isolating testable variables and randomizing groups

1. Specify the Hypothesis
2. Determine the sample size for the Test
3. Choose the Significance Level
4. Collect the data
5. Compare the p-value from the test to the significance level.
6. Decide whether to reject or fail to reject the null hypothesis.

• A common statistical method is to compare a population to the mean (or average).
• Using an appropriate statistical test, the researcher compares the two means, taking into account the increase, the number of data samples and the relative randomization of the groups.
• A result showing that the researcher can have confidence in the results allows rejection of the null hypothesis.
• Remember, not rejecting the null is not the same as "accepting" it.
• The null hypothesis is supported if the p value is greater than 0.05.

RESEARCH DESIGN

STM 009 (SAS 7)

KAAGAPAY SWUDENTS CIRCLE

• the method you choose will affect your results and how you conclude the findings
• most researchers are interested in getting reliable observations that can help the understanding of a phenomenon.
• two main approaches to a research problem:
  • Quantitative Research
    • generates numerical data or information that can be converted into numbers
  • Qualitative Research
    • generates non-numerical data
    • focuses оп gathering of mainly verbal data
    • gathered information is then analyzed in an interpretative manner, subjective, impressionistic or even diagnostic

1. Descriptive Designs - aims to observe and describe

• Descriptive Research
  • a scientific method which involves observing and describing the behavior of a subject without influencing it in any way
• Case Study
  • an in-depth study of a particular situation rather than a sweeping statistical survey. It is a method used to narrow down a very broad field of research into one easily researchable topic
  • this method of study is especially useful for trying to test theoretical models by using them in real world situations
• Naturalistic Observation
  • a useful tool for expanding knowledge about a specific phenomenon or species
• Survey
  • often used because of the low cost and easily accessible information - finding out what people think and feel
  • the survey research design is a very valuable tool for assessing opinions and trends

2. Correlational Studies - aims to predict

• Case Control Study
  • a method extensively used by the medical profession, as an easy and quick way of comparing treatments, or investigating the causes of disease
• Observational Study
  • this type of research draws a conclusion by comparing subjects against a control group, in cases where the researcher has no control over the experiment
  • a research study comparing the risk of developing lung cancer, between smokers and non-smokers, would be a good example of an observational study
• Cohort Study
  • a research program investigating a particular group with a certain trait, and observes over a period of time
• Longitudinal Study
  • observational research performed over a period of years or even decades. Longitudinal studies allow social scientists and economists to study long-term effects in a human population
• Cross Sectional Study
  • looking at a different aspect than the standard longitudinal study
  • the longitudinal study uses time as the main variable, and tries to make an in depth study of how a small sample changes and fluctuates over time
  • a cross sectional study, on the other hand, takes a snapshot of a population at a certain time, allowing conclusions about phenomena across a wide population to be drawn
• Correlational Study in general
  • determines whether or not two variables are correlated
  • this means to study whether an increase or decrease in one variable corresponds to an increase or decrease in the other variable
  • it is very important to note that correlation doesn't imply causation

3. Semi-Experimental Designs - aims to determine causes

• Field Experiment
  • an experiment performed outside the laboratory, in the 'real' world. Unlike case studies and observational studies, a field experiment still follows all of the steps of the scientific process, addressing research problems and generating hypotheses
• Quasi Experimental Design
  • involves selecting groups, upon which a variable is tested, without any random pre-selection processes.

4. Experimental Design - aims to determine causes

• True Experimental Design
  • regarded as the most accurate form of experimental research, in that it tries to prove or disprove a hypothesis mathematically, with statistical analysis
• Double-Blind Experiment
  • an experimental method used to ensure impartiality, and avoid errors arising from bias
  • the idea is that the groups studied, including the control, should not be aware of the group in which they are placed

5. Reviewing Other Research - aims to explain

• Literature Review
  • regarded as the most accurate form of experimental research, in that it tries to prove or disprove a hypothesis mathematically, with statistical analysis
• Meta-analysis
  • a statistical technique developed by social scientists, who are very limited in the type of experiments they can perform
  • they have great difficulty in designing and implementing true experiments, so meta-analysis gives them a quantitative tool to analyze statistically data drawn from a number of studies, performed over a period of time
• Systematic Reviews
  • heavily used by the healthcare sector, systematic reviews are a powerful way of isolating and critically evaluating previous research
  • modern medical research generates so much literature, and fills so many journals, that a traditional literature review could take months, and still be out of date by the time that the research is designed and performed

6. Test Study - aims to test if a design works

• Pilot Study
  • to test the feasibility, equipment and methods, researchers will often use a pilot study, a small-scale rehearsal of the larger research design.
  • the pilot study technique specifically refers to a smaller scale version of the experiment, although equipment tests are an increasingly important part of this sub-group of experiment
  • for example, the medical researchers may conduct a smaller survey upon a hundred people, to check that the protocols are fine

• What information do you want?
• What is the nature of the phenomenon?
• How reliable should the information be?
• Is it ethical to conduct the study?
• The cost of the design
• Is there little or much current scientific theory and literature on the topic?