Untitled
In 1944, the year after the Great Bengal Famine, 45.6% of widowers surveyed
ranked their health as either “ill” or “indifferent.” Only 2.5% of widows made the
same judgement. This subjective ranking belied their actual situations, because as
a group the widows’ basic health and nutrition tended to be particularly abysmal.
These women were starving, and yet most of them claimed not to be sick. One
explanation for this unwarranted stoicism is that, unlike men who were similarly
situated, these women reacted to the scarcity of food by coming to believe that
what little food there was should not be wasted on them.1 Amartya Sen has argued
that the reason the Bengali women formed these desires while the men did not
is that they had already internalized prevalent sexist social mores that granted
women’s interests less importance than men’s.2 Because these women did not
believe their interests mattered as much as others’, they did not experience their
starvation as worth complaining about.
It is a terrible thing that, to satisfy the less dire needs of the men around
them, these women were willing to give up the food that they needed to live. And
it is a terrible thing that this happened because these women came to believe that
their own needs were unimportant when compared with those of men. But I also
think that the women have something to answer for. Rather than standing up for
themselves, they accepted starvation. And, when they were being conditioned
by sexist social norms to think that this was right, they did not (or did not
effectively) reject this idea. In short, while these women were terribly wronged
by an oppressive society, they also wronged themselves by failing to resist this
oppression.
That it is wrong to oppress others, to take the food they need or deny them
the social conditions necessary for the self-respect they deserve, is hardly con-
troversial.3 But that those who are oppressed can also do wrong in not resisting
their oppression is rather more so.4 In this paper I defend this controversial
claim: I argue that people have an obligation to resist their own oppression and
that this obligation is rooted in an obligation to protect their rational nature.
First, I present a Kantian account of the obligation to resist one’s oppression
as an obligation oppressed people have to protect their rational nature; next, I
defend this Kantian account by demonstrating some of the ways oppression
can harm people’s rational nature; and finally, I show how the obligation to
resist one’s oppression need not be as overly onerous as it might initially appear
to be.
JOURNAL of SOCIAL PHILOSOPHY, Vol. 42 No. 1, Spring 2011, 21–45.
© 2011 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
I. The Obligation to Resist One’s Oppression
The usual reason to think that someone’s acquiescence in her or his oppres-
sion is morally problematic is other-oriented: by acquiescing in oppression,
one might argue, someone is at least failing to help, and quite possibly actually
harming, other people.5 This idea has merit. After all, no one is oppressed in a
social vacuum. The extent to which an individual goes along with her own
oppression typically affects the oppression of others who share her social cat-
egory. Accepting one’s oppression can make oppression appear acceptable, or,
even worse, it can make oppression appear not to be oppression at all.6 And doing
this is no better than endorsing oppression: sending the message that it is permis-
sible to treat me in these ways in virtue of my being a woman sends the message
that it is permissible to treat others in these ways in virtue of their being women,
too.
But there is also a self-directed account of the obligation to resist one’s
oppression: someone who is oppressed should stick up for herself, you might
think, because, by acquiescing in her oppression, she is behaving in a way that is
wrong regardless of how others are affected.
It is a well-known feature of Kant’s practical philosophy that he argues for
obligations to the self as well as to others. Kant has been highly influential on this
point; most contemporary philosophers who write about self-respect do so within
the Kantian tradition.7 Kant’s case for our obligations to ourselves, like his case
for our obligations to others, begins with the value of our rational nature. Kant’s
argument for why rational nature in general is valuable relies on his second
formulation of the Categorical Imperative, also known as the Formula of Human-
ity. This formulation of the Categorical Imperative famously commands you to
“Act so that you use humanity in your own person, as well as in the person of every
other, always at the same time as an end, never merely as a means.” (G 4:429)8 The
ground, or explanatory justification, of this moral principle, according to Kant, is
that “[r]ational nature exists as an end in itself.” (G 4:429) Kant says that insofar
as we are rational we must conceive of ourselves as having a rational nature, and
we must recognize that our rational nature confers upon us a value that requires
that we always be treated as an end and never merely as a means. That is, insofar
as we are rational we must view our rational nature as conferring on us a value that
restricts the ways we may be treated. The obligation of self-respect, then, is an
obligation to recognize the value of the rational nature within us and to respond
accordingly. This obligation is an instance of the more general obligation to
respect rational nature, wherever one finds it.
By far the most prominent Kantian account of why people have an obligation
to recognize the value of their rational nature and to respond appropriately to that
value is found in Thomas Hill’s “Servility and Self-Respect.”9 Hill argues that an
individual fails to respect herself insofar as she fails to acknowledge that she has
certain basic moral rights or insofar as she fails to value these rights properly; he
calls such a person “servile.” What is morally objectionable about servility is that
22 Carol Hay
it involves a public and systematic willingness to disavow one’s moral status and
this, Hill argues, is incompatible with a proper regard for morality. While the most
obvious instances of a lack of respect for morality tend to involve violating the
rights of others, the servile person’s lack of respect for morality lies in her acting
in ways that demonstrate that she either does not know or does not care about her
own status as a moral equal. The moral failing of servility, then, is that one fails
to fulfill the obligation of self-respect by failing to properly respect one’s equal
status under the moral law. Regardless of whether any particular case of servility
is blameworthy, Hill thinks it is morally objectionable, “at least in the sense that
it ought to be discouraged, that social conditions which nourish it should be
reformed, and the like.”10 And, insofar as servile behavior represents a failure of
the obligation of self-respect, Hill seems to imply that servile people have an
obligation to change their behavior. But, while Hill recognizes that servility is
a moral failing, he does not come out and say explicitly that people have an
obligation to resist this moral failing.
Although I am deeply sympathetic to Hill’s account, the account that I defend
here differs from his in several respects. One difference has to do with their
relative scopes: because Hill’s focus is on servility rather than oppression, his
account will apply to a different class of cases than mine. This is because it is
possible for there to be both cases of acquiescing in one’s oppression that do not
involve servility and cases of servility that do not involve acquiescing in one’s
oppression. The problems of servility and acquiescing in one’s oppression are
closely related, to be sure, but the two are conceptually distinct. Another differ-
ence between our accounts is that mine attempts to flesh out what respecting
rational nature actually requires of us in a way that Hill’s does not. If you focus,
as Hill does, exclusively on how acquiescing in one’s oppression is a failure to
respect the value of one’s rational nature, then you might overlook some of the
concrete ways one’s rational nature can actually be harmed by this acquiescence.
These are moral harms that deserve to be taken very seriously. For this reason,
I argue that once we recognize that rational nature can be harmed by oppression
we will see there is an obligation not merely to respect rational nature but also to
protect it. Hill’s focus is on the attitudes one must have toward rational nature; my
focus is on the particular actions one must take to actually protect this nature.
So I want to tell a somewhat different story, but one that also draws heavily
from Kant. I argue that if Kant is right and our rational nature has ultimate value,
then we ought to protect this nature by protecting all of it, including our capacity
to act rationally. Oppression can harm rational capacities in a number of ways, we
will see. Because one has an obligation to prevent harm to one’s rational nature,
and because oppression can harm one’s capacity to act rationally, one has an
obligation to resist one’s oppression.11 What I am doing here is applying the
Kantian obligation to respect rational nature in ways that have not been recognized
before. In identifying the possibility that oppression can harm people’s rational
capacities, I have uncovered a new class of instances that the general Kantian
obligation to respect rational nature can be applied to. This application should be
The Obligation to Resist Oppression 23
of special interest to feminist theorists, and to any others interested in oppression
more generally.
Of the various things that might be controversial about this line of thought,
one that might stand out at this point is the claim that oppression harms one’s
capacity to act rationally (or at least often does so in familiar contexts of oppres-
sion). The goal of what comes next, then, is to show how oppression does
this—how it harms oppressed people’s capacity to act rationally.
II. How Oppression Harms Rational Nature
Departing somewhat from many interpretations of Kant, I contend that
we should think of our capacity for practical rationality as an ordinary human
capacity, as susceptible to harm as many other human capacities. Our capacity
for practical rationality can be harmed when damage is done either to our capaci-
ties to form reasonable practically relevant beliefs, to our capacities to form
reasonable—that is, consistent—intentions on the basis of these beliefs, or to our
capacities to practically deliberate from beliefs to intentions. Our capacity for
practical rationality can also be harmed when we face illegitimate restrictions
on the full and proper exercise of these capacities. For clarity’s sake, I will refer
to the former sort of harm—when one’s rational capacities are prevented from
functioning in a way that also threatens their future functioning—as damage to
one’s rational nature and the latter sort of harm—when one encounters an unfair
temporary interference with the full exercise of one’s rational capacities—as a
restriction on one’s rational nature. The line between these two sorts of harm
will not always be completely clear, but this vagueness is unimportant given our
purposes here because both sorts of harm are seriously morally problematic.
Now, if development through childhood builds our rational capacities, and
trauma or neglect tears them down, then why not think that other forces are
capable of affecting them as well? Oppression is one such force, I argue: it can
damage someone’s rational capacities so thoroughly that her ability to act ratio-
nally is severely, sometimes permanently, compromised. And oppressed people
face restrictions on their ability to exercise their rational capacities even more
frequently than they face full-fledged damage to these capacities. There are a
number of different ways that oppression can affect our capacity for practical
rationality. I discuss several of them next. You need not agree with me about each
of these harms provided that you agree with me that oppression harms our
capacity for practical rationality in some way or other. Still, I think it is worth
getting a good sense of the range of different ways oppression can be harmful.
1. Oppression Can Cause Self-Deception
A classic form of practical irrationality occurs when someone acts irrationally
because she is deceiving herself. Oppression can cause self-deceptive behavior
because oppressive social systems create incentives for oppressed people to
24 Carol Hay
believe certain falsehoods about themselves, contrary to their own evidence. A
particularly interesting example of this is given by Elizabeth Anderson, who
shows how contradictory sexist norms of femininity and sexuality can cause
women to become “radically self-deceived” about their motivations for some of
their actions.12 Anderson focuses on the case of women who seek abortions after
having failed to use contraception. Despite not wanting to become pregnant, these
women do not use contraception, Anderson argues, because doing so would force
them to see themselves as “sexually active, receptive to sexual advances from
strange men, taking sexual initiatives, [and] exercising agency with respect to their
sexual choices.”13 And these women do not want to see themselves in these ways
because they are in the grip of other norms of femininity that are inconsistent with
this picture of sexual agency. These women are “caught between contradictory
norms of femininity: one that tells them it isn’t nice to have sex without intimacy;
another that tells them it isn’t nice to refuse their date’s sexual demands unless
they have a good excuse; [they are thus] heteronomous agents self-destructively
caught between contradictory external norms.”14 To put the point more concretely,
these women deceive themselves about the likelihood that they will have sex and
so do not take steps to provide for contraception. But this is irrational behavior, as
they do not want to become pregnant and they also do not take abortion to be as
good a method for dealing with unwanted pregnancy as contraception. And this
irrational behavior is evidence that these women have undergone harm to their
rational nature.
2. Oppression Can Harm Capacities for Rational Deliberation
Another way oppression can harm people’s capacity to act rationally is by
harming their capacities for rational deliberation. This sort of harm can affect
someone’s capacity for determining which means will allow her to achieve the
ends she has set, or it can affect her capacity for determining which ends to set in
the first place.15
Harm to someone’s capacity for instrumental rational deliberation could
result, for example, from depriving her of the basic educational resources needed
at key developmental stages to fully develop these skills.16 This sort of harm could
also result from the long-term cognitive damage that results from malnutrition—
something possibly experienced by some of the Bengali women we considered
earlier—or, in extreme cases, from language deprivation in early childhood.
Members of oppressed groups are significantly more likely to be deprived of these
various resources. The terror or trauma oppressed people can experience when
they face violence, or even the threat of violence, can also impair their rational
capacities. Harm to rational capacities can also result when someone is institu-
tionalized, medicated, or lobotomized, or from extreme cases of depression.
Oppressed people are more likely to face such adversities.17
Harm to an oppressed person’s capacity to use means–ends reasoning could
result if her independence is not fostered: if someone is always dependent on
The Obligation to Resist Oppression 25
others to do things for her, her ability to figure out how to do things for herself
can become impaired. If the means to your ends must always be to ask someone
else to do it for you because you are unable to do it yourself, this could eventually
permanently impair your capacity to determine how to do things on your own. And
even in cases where one’s rational capacities are not permanently damaged,
insofar as this lack of independence places unfair limits on the means that are
available to someone in the pursuit of her ends it is a restriction on the exercise of
these capacities. When oppression takes the form of infantilization, these harms
can happen all too easily.
Harm to someone’s rational capacity to choose certain valuable ends in the
first place can result from oppression because oppression can make it less likely
that the oppressed will imagine or conceive of various choices as live options for
people like them. This happens, for example, when someone internalizes social
roles that rule out various lifestyle choices as inappropriate or undesirable for
people like her. This process involves what theorists have called internalized
oppression.
18 Internalized oppression occurs when people come to believe, and so
actually endorse, the social norms and stereotypes that are responsible for their
oppression. Oppressive stereotypes can make other people believe that oppressed
people are inferior in their rational capacities, and can thus make others treat them
as such. But oppressive stereotypes can also make oppressed people themselves
believe that they are inferior in this way, and can thus make oppressed people
either treat themselves as such or accept such treatment from others. Internalized
oppression can function as a self-fulfilling prophecy: an oppressed person can
become what everyone already believes her to be. Internalized oppression can
make oppressed people subject to the phenomenon of sour grapes: just as when
the fox realizes that he cannot get the grapes he desires and so decides that they
are sour, oppressed people can respond to the recognition that many worthwhile
ends are outside their grasp by rejecting the value of those ends and deciding
not to set them for themselves.19 Internalized oppression can damage or restrict
people’s sense of self-worth, so they do not set certain worthwhile ends for
themselves because they do not think they deserve them. In a related manner,
when an oppressed person has internalized the belief that she is inferior to others,
she can be more likely to set ends that fail to protect her future well-being; such
ends, many philosophers think, are irrational because it is a requirement of
practical reason that people have prudential regard for their future well-being.20
3. Oppression Can Cause Weakness of Will
Weakness of will—akrasia—is a matter of deciding what one has reason to
do in a given situation, deciding to do it, but then doing something else instead
because one has given in to countervailing pressures that have been brought on by
various non-rational considerations. One way oppression might cause someone to
do this turns on the self-fulfilling prophecies that can result when people who are
oppressed internalize derogatory stereotypes that depict people like them as lazy
26 Carol Hay
or impetuous or irresponsible. Someone who has internalized such stereotypes just
might not hold herself to very high standards of rationality and thus might be more
susceptible to succumbing to weakness of will in various circumstances. If you
know that others expect people like you to succumb to certain temptations, you
might eventually come to expect yourself to succumb, and it can be that much
harder to resist such temptations when they arise.
Another example of how oppression can cause weakness of will can be found
in the case of abortion-seeking women we considered earlier. At least some of
these women consent to unwanted sex, Anderson claims, because they cannot see
how to say “no.” One explanation of what has gone on here is that they suffer from
weakness of will inculcated by having internalized social norms that fail to teach
women to stand up for themselves. These women recognize that they have good
reason to refrain from having sex but succumb to their partners’ sexual demands
nevertheless. And engaging in this irrational behavior is evidence that their
rational nature has been harmed in some way.
III. An Objection from Standpoint Theory
Before moving on, I would like to briefly consider an objection that is
motivated by certain concerns that standpoint theorists have raised. The central
insight behind standpoint theory is what Alison Wylie has called an inversion
thesis:
those who are subject to structures of domination that systematically marginalize and
oppress them may, in fact, be epistemically privileged in some crucial respects. They may
know different things, or know some things better than those who are comparatively
privileged (socially, politically), by virtue of what they typically experience and how they
understand their experience.21
This inversion thesis suggests that people who live at the margins of society—
people who are oppressed in virtue of, say, their class, race, gender, or sexual
orientation—are actually better situated to know certain things. These people’s
marginalization makes them likely be discredited epistemically because they are
often seen to be uneducated, or uninformed, or unreliable. But marginalization can
actually confer epistemic advantage, standpoint theorists argue. Living one’s life
at the margins of society can put someone in a position to know things that more
privileged people usually do not know, or things they have a vested interest in
not knowing, or things they have a vested interest in systematically ignoring or
denying. This is especially true when it comes to knowledge about oppressive
social structures: because oppressed people do not have an interest in maintaining
an oppressive status quo, it is easier for them to understand how oppression works.
Given the considerations brought to light by standpoint theorists, then, you
might think that my account has things exactly backward. I have argued, remem-
ber, that the reason people have an obligation to resist their oppression is that
oppression harms people’s rational capacities. This harm can make oppressed
The Obligation to Resist Oppression 27
people act in practically irrational ways. But, if you take standpoint theory seri-
ously, you might think it is not the members of oppressed groups who are in
danger of acting irrationally; it is the members of oppressor groups.22 Further-
more, it might be charged that because my account focuses on the ways oppres-
sion can damage people’s rational capacities, it is, in effect, guilty of carrying on
the tradition of epistemically discrediting people who are oppressed.
To respond to these objections, I want to emphasize certain clarifications of
standpoint theory that theorists such as Wylie have been careful to articulate. Early
standpoint theorists often said things to suggest that marginalized standpoints are
universally epistemically advantaged.23 But it is a mistake, Wylie claims, to think
that the epistemic advantages of marginalization are automatic, or that they are
all-encompassing. While not denying that the marginalization that results from
oppression can confer certain epistemic advantages, Wylie points out that oppres-
sion can sometimes put people at an epistemic disadvantage as well. Oppressed
people often lack access to formal education, for example, and this deprivation
can affect the kinds of information they have access to, the kinds of theoretical or
explanatory tools they have at their disposal, and their ability to develop various
analytical reasoning skills. Many of the harms to oppressed people’s rational
capacities discussed above can also be understood as examples of the ways that
oppression can put oppressed people at an epistemic disadvantage, I contend.
There are, in short, things that oppressed people will not be able to know because
of the effects of oppression on their rational capacities.
In agreeing with Wylie here, I am perhaps ultimately just reasserting my
claim that oppression harms people’s rational capacities. But I am also insisting
that this claim is not in conflict with the tenets of standpoint theory, properly
understood. Standpoint theorists need not exaggerate the epistemic advantages of
oppression. Focusing on the ways oppression harms oppressed people’s rational
capacities risks contributing to the tradition of epistemically discrediting these
people, I will admit. But this is a risk I am willing to take, for the only alternative
is to pretend that these harms are not really there. Ignoring these harms will not
make them go away. But identifying them, and working to eradicate them, might.
IV. Imperfect Duties and An Objection from Demandingness
We have just seen that oppression can damage or restrict one’s capacity for
practical rationality, and thus harm one’s rational nature, in a number of ways.
Because there is an obligation to protect one’s rational nature, in cases where
oppression harms rational nature, one has an obligation to protect oneself from
these harms. But what exactly does this obligation require? In most familiar
circumstances, the most practical way to protect one’s rational nature from the
harms of oppression is to resist one’s oppression. So what is someone obligated
to do when she is obligated to resist her own oppression, and when is she so
obligated? Just how demanding is this obligation? Given the moral seriousness of
28 Carol Hay
these harms, there is good reason to think that someone is obligated to resist her
oppression whenever she is oppressed. But, if this is the case, then, given the
ubiquity of oppression and the resilience of the systems that produce it, the
obligation to resist one’s own oppression would be very demanding. Probably too
demanding, in fact.
There is a real concern, I concede, that my account might be guilty of
demanding too much of people. We just cannot be obligated to resist our oppres-
sion at every available opportunity, the thought might be. Nor can we be obligated
to do whatever it takes to resist oppression. In many oppressive contexts, actively
resisting oppression can be dangerous or counterproductive: resistance can be
exhausting, victimizing, and can subject someone to retribution from others. In
these sorts of cases, it looks like not resisting your oppression is a better way to
protect your rational capacities from oppression’s harms than resisting it is. In
other cases, resistance might simply be impossible—given the ubiquity of oppres-
sion, it is probably not logistically possible to resist its every manifestation; given
the severity of some oppressive harms, a victim might be rendered incapable of
resistance; given the social nature of oppression, resistance might require the
cooperation of others who are unwilling to help;24 given the mystification of
oppression, someone might not even realize she is oppressed25—and, as we all
well know, if someone cannot do something then it cannot be that she ought to do
it. And in virtually every case, defending an obligation to resist oppression seems
to be tantamount to blaming the victim: if there is an obligation to resist oppres-
sion, after all, then it seems that those who fail to resist their oppression will be the
appropriate subjects of blame.26 Finally, as we saw above, one might argue that
resisting one’s oppression is supererogatory rather than obligatory: resisting one’s
own oppression is heroic, certainly, but it is simply not reasonable to say that
failing to resist makes someone immoral or blameworthy. To address these various
lines of objection, in what follows I argue that the obligation to resist one’s own
oppression is an imperfect duty and that, as a result, someone is not obligated
to do whatever it takes to resist her oppression; and it might be that she is not
obligated to resist at every available opportunity either.
As we will see, there are many different forms that resistance to oppression
can take. Thinking about the obligation to resist one’s oppression in this way—as
an obligation that can be fulfilled by more than one kind of action—makes the
obligation what Kantians call an imperfect duty.
27 The distinguishing characteris-
tic of imperfect duties is that they permit a wider range of acceptable actions
in fulfilling them than is the case for perfect duties.28 This is because (unlike
perfect duties) imperfect duties are not, strictly speaking, duties to perform spe-
cific actions. Rather, imperfect duties are duties to adopt certain general maxims,
or principles of action. These maxims can be satisfied by more than one action.
Imperfect duties thus allow a latitude of choice that perfect duties do not. To say
that the duty to resist one’s oppression is imperfect, however, is not to suggest
that it is less stringent or less important than other duties. Instead, calling this
duty imperfect means there is a strict duty to set the end of resisting one’s own
The Obligation to Resist Oppression 29
oppression, but there can be more than one way to go about pursuing this end.
What the imperfect duty to resist one’s oppression rules out is the refusal to do
anything to resist one’s oppression. That is, it rules out acquiescing in one’s own
oppression.
That imperfect duties permit latitude in action is not a matter of dispute. But
exactly how much and what kind of latitude these duties have is very much up in
the air. Imperfect duties “cannot specify precisely in what way one is to act” (DV
6:390) but is there nothing we can say about the specific actions prescribed by the
different imperfect duties? Imperfect duties “cannot specify precisely . . . how
much one is to do” (DV 6:390), but is there nothing we can say about how often
we have to act or how much we have to do to fulfill them? Kant is, unfortunately,
less clear than one might like about how best to characterize imperfect duties. But
what is clear is that there is no general story to be told about the latitude that
various imperfect duties have. Instead, we have to look at the duties individually:
different imperfect duties have different kinds and degrees of latitude.
In what follows, I will focus on two different kinds of latitude in action that
can be permitted by imperfect duties.29 One kind of latitude someone might have
is latitude to decide between various different ways of acting in a particular
situation to satisfy the maxim required by an imperfect duty. Call this kind of
latitude latitude in which action to take. Someone could fulfill the imperfect
duty to be beneficent, for example, by working at a soup kitchen or by donating
to Planned Parenthood or by giving used clothing to the Goodwill. The duty of
beneficence does not require any of these acts in particular; it just requires that
one do something that is beneficent. Because imperfect duties are duties to adopt
general maxims, not duties to perform specific actions, all imperfect duties permit
this kind of latitude. A second kind of latitude someone might have is latitude to
choose either to perform or to refrain from performing an action on a particular
occasion, so long as she stands ready to perform the given sort of action on at
least some other occasions. Call this kind of latitude latitude in refraining from
action. Someone could count as fulfilling the imperfect duty to be beneficent,
for example, even if she refrained from performing all of the above-mentioned
beneficent actions on a given occasion, as long as she does not always refrain from
acting beneficently. The question here, then, is whether, and to what extent, the
imperfect duty to resist oppression permits these two different kinds of latitude.
V. Latitude in Which Action to Take
What are the different sorts of actions one could take to fulfill the obligation
to resist oppression? One could resist oppression by participating in some form of
activism intended to engage with and ultimately change the social norms, roles,
and institutions that make up an oppressive system. In at least some cases, for
example, oppressed people can directly confront the individual people who are
actively oppressing them. Oppressed people can often also give time or money to
30 Carol Hay
organizations that are dedicated to dismantling oppressive social institutions.
Sometimes oppressed people can both empower themselves and undermine the
effectiveness of oppressive social roles by reappropriating derogatory stereotypes
or language—people have attempted to do this (not uncontroversially30) with
words like “bitch,” “nigger,” and “faggot.” And in some cases oppressed people
can take part in oppressive social institutions in ways that demonstrate that such
institutions need not necessarily be oppressive—one could, for example, enter into
a marriage of mutual respect (one where both partners were committed to ensuring
that each partner had an equal opportunity to pursue meaningful life projects and
that the inevitable sacrifices and compromises of family life did not unfairly
disadvantage one partner over the other) and thereby show that the institution of
marriage itself is not necessarily oppressive, even if its most conventional forms
function to entrench sexist oppression.
Another way to resist oppression is to opt out of oppressive social norms,
roles, and institutions. Oppressed people could boycott an oppressive institution,
for example. Or they could opt out of oppressive social norms by refusing to
conform to conventional modes of dress or behavior—as, for example, when
someone refuses to identify with conventional gender norms and instead presents
herself as androgynous or as the opposite gender of what she has been assigned
according to her sex. Another option for oppressed people is to isolate themselves
from their oppressors to foster solidarity with other members of their oppressed
group—this sort of opting out could be as radical as lesbian separatism or as
moderate as creating a women’s-only space on a college campus. Opting out can
also occur when oppressed people refuse to behave in ways considered to be
appropriate for members of their social group—when women are assertive, con-
fident, or opinionated, for example. (Opting out like this can be particularly
effective for women, as many of the kinds of practical irrationality to which many
women are especially prone in virtue of their oppression are those that involve
a lack of confidence, or a lack of willingness to make a scene, or a lack of
willingness to make someone else uncomfortable.)
Both engaging in activism and opting out are external forms of resisting
oppression. But resistance to oppression could be internal as well: someone could,
at least theoretically, fulfill the obligation to respect her rational nature by becom-
ing the sort of person whose rational nature was simply not damaged by oppres-
sion. An oppressed person could build up mental walls against many of the harms
to her rational nature threatened by oppression. She could educate herself about
the potential risks of these harms and be wary of their effects. She could simply
refuse to believe what oppressive social messages are telling her about the char-
acter or worth of people like her. Insofar as these and other forms of internal
resistance succeed in protecting one’s rational capacities from the harms of
oppression, they would qualify as actions that successfully fulfill the obligation to
resist one’s oppression. And insofar as these and other forms of internal resistance
manifest self-respect, they are probably morally required for other reasons as
well.31
The Obligation to Resist Oppression 31
In some cases, when every other form of resistance would subject her to harm
(or the serious risk of harm), some form of internal resistance might be the only
resistance that is available to an oppressed person. The Bengali widows we saw
earlier could be an example of this sort of case. If these women were to stand
up for themselves—by, say, vocally demanding their fair share of the limited
resources available to them—they could be perceived as disobedient or unruly and
could face retribution from people keen to remind them of their place. They could
risk beatings, expulsion from their community, even murder. Their external
actions could subject their children to these risks. If risks like these are attached
to resisting externally, one has very good reason to not resist externally. But even
if these women would be risking harm by resisting oppression externally, they
could still tell themselves that they deserve the food they are giving up as much as
anyone else does and that their survival is as important as anyone else’s.
In some cases, there might be nothing an oppressed person can do to resist her
oppression other than simply recognizing that something is wrong with her situ-
ation. This is, in a profound sense, better than nothing. It means she has not
acquiesced to the innumerable forces that are conspiring to convince her that she
is the sort of person who has no right to expect better. It means she recognizes that
her lot in life is neither justified nor inevitable. There is something importantly
self-respecting about engaging in internal resistance, and the possibility of this
sort of resistance captures the intuition that there are actions someone can engage
in to fulfill the duty to resist oppression even when external resistance is impru-
dent or impossible.
Admittedly, in many cases it might be difficult to tell whether someone is
resisting her oppression internally. Consider the following example.32 In his essay
“Getting Away from Already Being Pretty Much Away from It All,” David Foster
Wallace describes his visit to the Illinois State Fair for Harper’s magazine.33
While his friend—who he calls “Native Companion” because she is a local—is
riding one of the fair’s rides the men operating the ride stop it as she is upside
down so that her dress falls over her head and they can “ogl[e] her nethers.”34 What
follows is the exchange that takes place between Wallace and Native Companion
immediately after she gets off the ride.
Wallace asks, “Did you sense something kind of sexual-harassmentish going on through
that whole little sick exercise?”
“Oh for fuck’s sake . . . it was fun.”
“They were looking up your dress. You couldn’t see them, maybe. They hung you upside
down at a great height and made your dress fall up and ogled you. They shaded their eyes
and made comments to each other. I saw the whole thing.”
“Oh for fuck’s sake.”
“So this doesn’t bother you? As a Midwesterner, you’re unbothered? Or did you just not
have an accurate sense of what was going on back there?”
“So if I noticed or I didn’t, why does it have to be my deal? What, because there’s
assholes in the world I don’t get to ride on The Zipper? I don’t get to ever spin?
32 Carol Hay
Maybe I shouldn’t ever go to the pool or ever get all girled up, just out of fear of
assholes?”...
“So I’m curious, then, about what it would have taken back there, say, to have gotten you
to lodge some sort of complaint with the Fair’s management.”
“You’re so fucking innocent . . . ,” she says. “Assholes are just assholes. What’s getting hot
and bothered going to do about it except keep me from getting to have fun?”...
“This is potentially key. . . . This may be just the sort of regional politico-sexual contrast
the swanky East-Coast magazine is keen for. The core value informing a kind of willed
politico-sexual stoicism on your part is your prototypically Midwestern appreciation of
fun . . . whereas on the East Coast, politico-sexual indignation is the fun. In New York, a
woman who’d been hung upside down and ogled would go get a whole lot of other women
together and there’d be this frenzy of politico-sexual indignation. They’d confront the
ogler. File an injunction. Management’d find itself litigating expensively—violation of
a woman’s right to nonharassed fun. I’m telling you. Personal and political fun merge
somewhere just east of Cleveland, for women.”...
“They might ought to try just climbing on and spinning and ignoring assholes and saying
Fuck ’em. That’s pretty much all you can do with assholes.”35
Is Native Companion on to something here? Does she have no obligation
whatsoever to resist her oppression in this situation? Or, by refusing to let the
carnies get to her, might we say that she is actually resisting her oppression
internally? We could argue that by refusing to feel humiliated, by refusing to let
the carnies dictate to her when and how she can have fun, and by refusing to
believe that their sexually objectifying her demeans her moral status as a person
in any way, Native Companion is protecting her rational capacities from the
harms of oppression and so is, in effect, resisting her oppression internally.
This is a plausible interpretation of what has gone on in this situation, I
think. Native Companion is portrayed in this story as someone who is feisty,
confident, and self-secure; there is every reason to think she is the sort of person
whose rational capacities are not endangered by an isolated incident of sexual
harassment.
But an alternative interpretation of what has gone on here that is just as
plausible, I think, is that Native Companion is exhibiting either bad faith or
ignorance resulting from internalized oppression. She might be unaware of how
the systematic nature of oppression means that its harms are likelier to occur
corrosively than discretely and thus that the full extent of its harms are never
appreciable when looking only at isolated incidents.36 She might resist character-
izing herself as oppressed because she does not want to think of herself as a victim
or the men in her life as victimizers. She might be unwilling to give up the few
benefits afforded to her by the oppressive status quo.37 She might have simply
accepted the sexist status quo—a status quo where men are free to objectify and
harass women and face relatively few consequences—as not merely inevitable but
actually not unjust. Native Companion’s hypothetical ignorance or bad faith here
might be blameless.38 But she would be mistaken, nevertheless. If this interpreta-
tion of the situation is the right one, then Native Companion is not resisting her
The Obligation to Resist Oppression 33
oppression internally by refusing to let the carnies get under her skin. Rather, she
is exhibiting exactly the bad faith or ignorance that we should expect of someone
in her circumstances.
The point here is that the very nature of oppression can make it difficult or
impossible to tell whether someone is resisting internally or is acquiescing. So, if
the only resistance someone is putting up is internal, we might have no way to know
whether she is fulfilling the obligation to resist her oppression. There will be a fact
of the matter here, but we might not have access to it.39 Notice that this possibility
holds not just when attempting to determine whether someone else is resisting her
oppression; it also holds when attempting to determine whether we ourselves are
resisting. You might think that you are resisting your oppression internally—or, if,
like Native Companion, you are not inclined to think about things in terms of
oppression, you might think you are being self-respecting or some such thing—but
you could be fooling yourself. You could be engaging in self-deception: one of the
forms of practical irrationality encouraged by oppression. This oppressive harm to
our rational capacities can make it difficult to know whether we are fulfilling the
obligation to resist oppression if we only resist internally. This gives us good reason
to err on the side of caution, to not necessarily trust our gut when we think we are
resisting internally, and to resist oppression externally whenever possible, to be sure
we are successfully fulfilling this obligation.
Furthermore, internal resistance might be able to protect one’s rational nature
from the harms of oppression, but it would leave oppressive social structures
intact. As I said above, there are good reasons to think that someone who is
oppressed has obligations to other members of her oppressed group to not acqui-
esce in oppressive social structures, even if these structures are not currently
harming her personally. This means that internal resistance, even if successful in
protecting one’s own rational nature, would usually be insufficient to fulfill every
moral obligation of resistance an oppressed person has.
On top of all this, I think it is psychologically implausible to suggest that
successfully protecting one’s rational nature solely by means of engaging in
internal resistance is a live possibility for most oppressed people. Most people’s
psychologies are simply not oppression-proof. This is why the harms of oppres-
sion are so extensive. So, again, while the obligation to respect one’s rational
nature in the face of oppressive harms could theoretically be satisfied solely by
resisting oppression internally rather than externally, there are epistemic, moral,
and practical reasons to think that in all but the most extreme cases some degree
of external resistance to oppression will remain necessary.
Insofar as these different forms of resistance—internal and external—
function to protect one’s rational nature while destabilizing or undermining
oppressive social structures, they all count as resisting one’s oppression. They are
thus sufficient to fulfill the obligation to resist one’s own oppression. (By calling
these actions “sufficient” I do not mean to imply that someone merely has to
perform one of them and then she will have successfully fulfilled her obligation
to resist her oppression and can go on her merry way and never have to bother
34 Carol Hay
resisting ever again. Rather, I mean that they count as one sort of action which,
when performed in conjunction with other actions of this sort, successfully fulfill
this obligation.) But are any of these forms of resistance necessary? Does the
obligation to resist one’s oppression require any of these actions? I contend that,
while each of these actions counts as resisting one’s oppression, none of these
actions in particular is required by the obligation to resist.
VI. Latitude in Refraining from Action
We have just seen that the imperfect duty to resist oppression permits a great
deal of latitude in which action one can take to fulfill it. The question now is
whether this obligation ever permits latitude in refraining from acting at all. All
imperfect duties have the kind of latitude just discussed: because they are specified
quite generally, there will always be more than one action someone can undertake
to fulfill an imperfect duty. But some imperfect duties also have a different kind
of latitude: it is sometimes permissible to refrain from acting to fulfill some
imperfect duties, as long as one does not refrain all the time. The paradigm cases
of imperfect duty found in Kant—beneficence and developing one’s talents—have
this kind of latitude (DV 6:392–94, 444–46). But Kant thinks other imperfect
duties—respecting others and increasing one’s moral perfection—do not have this
latitude (DV 6:393–94, 446–47). The question here, then, is whether the imperfect
duty to resist one’s oppression has this kind of latitude. The question is whether,
just as someone counts as fulfilling the duty of beneficence even if she does not
act to fulfill this duty at every available opportunity, someone counts as fulfilling
the duty of resisting her oppression if she does not act to fulfill this duty at every
available opportunity. The question, in other words, is whether it is permissible to
sometimes sit by and let oneself be oppressed.
To see why a Kantian might think the imperfect duty to resist one’s oppres-
sion should permit latitude in refraining from action, think for a moment about the
erosive effects of water dripping on stone. Just as individual droplets of water that
seem not to have any effect on a piece of stone can cumulatively wear a piece of
stone away, rational nature can be harmed in almost invisible increments. So too
for oppression: what might seem to be merely the harmless slights or annoyances
or inconveniences of oppression can have a cumulative effect on people’s rational
nature. This analogy illustrates not only how the effects of oppression are as likely
to be gradual and cumulative as they are discrete; it also presents us with a case for
arguing that people are not obligated to resist every instance of their oppression.
If you have a piece of stone that has to be protected only from detectable erosion,
then you obviously cannot let water run over it for any period of time, but any
individual drop splashing on it here and there will probably not be a problem so
long as you are careful to not let it happen for too long or too often. So too for the
corrosive effects of oppression on one’s rational nature: many individual instances
of oppression can be borne without discernibly harming one’s rational nature, but
The Obligation to Resist Oppression 35
eventually they will accumulate and discernible harm will occur. This means that
the obligation to protect one’s rational nature from being harmed by oppression
could allow one to refrain from resisting at least once in a while. Because rational
nature is so valuable, one needs to err on the side of caution, obviously, and be
careful to not let the corrosive effects of oppression accumulate. But it is com-
patible with an obligation to protect one’s rational nature to occasionally fail to
resist individual instances of oppression that would end up harming one’s rational
nature were one to fail to resist them all the time. None of us is so fragile that we
cannot bear the stress of an occasional instance of oppression.
This result suggests that the obligation to resist one’s oppression might permit
at least some latitude in refraining from action. Remember, imperfect duties are
duties to adopt a general principle of action, not duties to perform a particular
action; this generality means that one can fulfill some imperfect duties without
necessarily acting on them at every available opportunity. And it looks like the
obligation to resist one’s oppression might allow this sort of latitude: someone can
protect her rational nature, and thus fulfill the obligation to protect it, without
resisting her oppression at every opportunity, so long as she does not do this so
often that the corrosive effects of oppression are allowed to accumulate. This
means, for example, that someone like Native Companion could, on occasion, be
morally permitted to not do everything in her power to resist her oppression. She
could be morally permitted to do nothing in this instance: she could not bother
confronting the carnies, and even not bother reporting the incident to their boss. If
the erosion analogy is apt, it turns out that “climbing on and spinning and ignoring
assholes and saying Fuck’em,”40 might be okay, at least once in a while. Maybe
sometimes it is true that this is “pretty much all you can do with assholes.”41 The
erosion analogy suggests that Native Companion’s imperfect duty to resist her
oppression should permit her at least some latitude in refraining from action.
To be clear, what this duty does not permit her to do is resist so rarely that the
harms of oppression accumulate and damage her rational nature. Because rational
nature is so fundamentally valuable, the duty to protect it by resisting one’s
oppression would obviously have less of this sort of latitude than imperfect duties
like the duty of beneficence and the duty to develop one’s talents. But unlike, say,
the imperfect duty to increase one’s moral perfection, which Kant says permits no
latitude in refraining from action, it is possible that the imperfect duty to resist
one’s oppression could permit some latitude in refraining from action. And, to be
clear, this latitude is a possibility because the obligation here is not merely to
respect one’s rational nature, but to protect it.
To determine whether the obligation to resist oppression should permit lati-
tude in refraining from action, we need to examine why Kant thinks some other
imperfect duties permit this latitude. Kant points out that there are countless ways
to fulfill the imperfect duties of beneficence and of developing one’s talents, and
so we must recognize that our finite, limited nature forces us to choose among
these options. It is simply impossible to pursue all the different ways we might
develop our talents, and if we were to attempt to pursue every one of them we
36 Carol Hay
would fail to succeed at developing any of our talents at all. So too for benefi-
cence: we could not successfully act beneficently were we to attempt to help every
single other person achieve their ends in every instance. These two imperfect
duties permit latitude in refraining from action because the possibility of success-
fully fulfilling them actually requires not acting at every available opportunity.
The imperfect duties of respecting others and increasing our moral perfection,
on the other hand, do not permit latitude in refraining from action because it is
possible to successfully fulfill them while acting at every available opportunity.
Is the obligation to resist one’s oppression like this? Is it impossible to fulfill
this obligation if we must act on it at every available opportunity? What most
strongly motivates the attractiveness of thinking that the obligation to resist
oppression should permit latitude in refraining from action, I think, is the recog-
nition that there are situations where resisting one’s oppression in the wrong way
can be dangerous (or at least counterproductive). Because certain actions taken to
protect rational capacities can be dangerous or counterproductive if they are taken
all the time or in the wrong circumstances, refraining from acting to protect one’s
rational capacities might actually be the best way to protect them in certain
circumstances. Fair enough. But, I claim, it would be a mistake to categorize the
latitude in question here as latitude in refraining from action. This is because the
explanation for why someone is not required to act (or is permitted to not act) in
these sorts of circumstances is that successfully fulfilling the duty to protect one’s
rational capacities requires (or permits) that one not act in these circumstances.
One’s failure to act here is thus actually better described as a failure to act
outwardly or externally. One is still acting, in the relevant sense. One has still set
the maxim to protect one’s rational capacities, and one’s behavior is still in accord
with this maxim. It is just that in these circumstances the best way to achieve this
end is to refrain from doing anything outward. One recognizes this, and acts
accordingly. One is, in short, resisting one’s oppression internally. It is latitude in
which action to take to fulfill the duty to protect rational capacities—the other
kind of latitude—that explains why one is required (or permitted) to fulfill this
duty by refraining from acting externally in these circumstances. Were this to be
a case of latitude in refraining from action, one would set the maxim to protect
her rational capacities, recognize that the best way to achieve this end in these
circumstances would be to take a certain course of action, but then refrain from
taking this course of action. And that is not what one has done here.
The possibility of internal resistance means that, unlike the imperfect duties
of beneficence and developing one’s talents, practical considerations do not make
the obligation to resist one’s oppression impossible to fulfill if acted on at every
opportunity. Perhaps this should lead us to say that because internal resistance is
always a possibility the duty to resist oppression permits no latitude in refraining
from action.
But why, exactly, must we say that the duty to resist oppression always
requires at least internal resistance? Why can we not say that refraining from even
internal resistance is sometimes permissible? The erosion analogy establishes as a
The Obligation to Resist Oppression 37
possibility that there could be cases where someone may not have to do anything
to resist her oppression, remember, because it shows that many individual
instances of oppression can be borne without discernibly damaging one’s rational
nature. But, given that we can account for the most intuitive cases of when it seems
that resistance should not be required with the possibility of engaging in internal
resistance, I think the burden of proof is on the person who wants to claim that
not even internal resistance is required in a given circumstance. Notice that any
argument attempting to claim that not even internal resistance is required in a
given circumstance is, in effect, going to be an argument for why someone does
not have to be self-respecting in this circumstance. This will not be an easy
argument to make. Saying, “I just don’t feel like it,” or, “It’s just not that big a
deal,” is nowhere near sufficient to establish that one should not have to be
self-respecting.
Think again of the other imperfect duties that permit latitude in refraining
from action. Even when one permissibly refrains from engaging in a particular
action that would fulfill the imperfect duties to be beneficent or to develop one’s
talents, one must retain a latent recognition that engaging in such an action is a
possibility for oneself and that insofar as it would fulfill the duty it would be a
good thing to do. One must not deny that such an action would fulfill the duty
(even if someone chooses to not volunteer at a soup kitchen she must be willing
to recognize that doing so would fulfill the duty of beneficence). And, importantly,
one must not deny that the duty is important and that one remains subject to it
(even if someone chooses not to be beneficent in this particular instance she must
be willing to recognize that beneficence is important and that she is still bound by
the duty of beneficence).
So, if the obligation to resist one’s oppression permits latitude in refraining
from action, someone who avails herself of this latitude must still be willing to
recognize the importance of the obligation to protect her rational nature from the
harms of oppression. She must recognize that she remains subject to this obliga-
tion. And she must recognize that various actions are open to her to fulfill this
obligation, and that they would be good to do, even if she chooses not to engage
in them in a particular instance.
Take the case of Native Companion. If her expressed desire to do nothing
to resist her oppression at the hands of the carnies is actually a form of internal
resistance—perhaps because she recognizes on some level that being required
to mount external resistance to every situation like this would be exhausting or
victimizing—then she is in the clear. She is fulfilling the duty to protect her
rational nature by reserving her energy for more important matters. She is respect-
ing herself by resisting her oppression internally. If, on the other hand, by doing
nothing to resist her oppression she is actually refraining from engaging in
any sort of resistance, then if this is to be a permissible instance of latitude in
refraining from action she must be willing to uphold the importance of resisting
oppression, she must recognize that she is subject to the obligation to resist
oppression, and she must recognize that the actions she is choosing to not engage
38 Carol Hay
in would count as fulfilling this obligation. So if Native Companion wants to do
nothing here because she is unwilling to recognize that she has been subject to
oppression, because she is unwilling to recognize that she has an obligation to
resist her oppression, or because she is unwilling to recognize the importance of
resisting oppression, then this is not a permissible instance of latitude in refraining
from action and she has not fulfilled the obligation to resist her oppression. If these
are her reasons for refraining from action in this oppressive situation, she is likely
to make a similar judgement about the permissibility of refraining from action
in other oppressive situations. Taking claims such as, “I just don’t feel like it,” or,
“It’s just not that big a deal,” to be good reasons to refrain from action is evidence
that one does not properly appreciate the gravity of the situation; it is evidence
that one does not properly appreciate the value of her rational nature or does not
properly appreciate the risks her rational nature faces under oppression. And
failing to appreciate this will inevitably lead to harms to one’s rational capacities.
Refraining from internal resistance is thus likely to result in erosive harms to one’s
rational nature because it is likely that an unwillingness to resist oppression at
least internally manifests either a lack of appreciation of the seriousness of the
moral harms of oppression, or, worse, a lack of self-respect. Cases where one is
permitted latitude in refraining from at least internal resistance will thus be
exceedingly rare.
In spite of the evocativeness of the erosion analogy, it is extremely difficult to
find practical cases where the imperfect duty to resist one’s oppression actually
permits latitude in refraining from action. Here is one final possibility. Notice,
first, that claiming that someone is obligated to resist her oppression seems to
require that she is aware of her oppression and of the harm that it poses to her
rational nature. What does this mean, one might ask, for cases where someone
does not have this knowledge? Does ignorance of one’s oppression vitiate the
obligation to resist it?42 Given that when someone has internalized her oppression
her ability to recognize that she is oppressed can be severely impaired, ignorance
of one’s oppression is likely to be exceedingly common. Perhaps we should say
that these are the sorts of cases where the obligation to resist permits latitude
in refraining from action: if someone does not know that she is oppressed, then
surely she should not have to act to fulfill the obligation to resist her oppression.
If the obligation to resist oppression demanded otherwise, it would be exceedingly
onerous.
But we must be careful here. I do think we should say that at least some of the
people who are ignorant of their oppression should not have to resist it. But to say
that someone who is ignorant of her oppression “should not have to resist it” does
not necessarily mean that she is not obligated to resist. It might mean, instead, that
she has an excuse for failing to fulfill this obligation. I contend that the obligation
to resist one’s oppression exists whether someone is aware of her oppression or
not.43 Ignorance of one’s oppression can, however, affect whether someone is
blameworthy for failing to fulfill the obligation to resist. This is a familiar moral
phenomenon—when an agent does something wrong but, for one reason or
The Obligation to Resist Oppression 39
another, we do not hold her morally responsible for her offense—and it shows that
failing to fulfill the obligation to resist one’s oppression does not necessarily mean
that one is blameworthy for such a failure. To be clear: the latitude in refraining
from action that characterizes some imperfect duties does not amount to permis-
sion to fail to fulfill these duties in situations where one should fulfill them. So we
should not try to explain failures to fulfill the obligation to resist oppression that
result from ignorance as permissible instances of latitude in refraining from
action. Instead, we should explain failures to resist that result from nonculpable
ignorance as cases of nonculpable failure to fulfill the obligation, and failures to
resist that result from culpable ignorance as cases of culpable failure to fulfill the
obligation. So, for example, if Native Companion’s ignorance of her oppression is
not her fault, then neither is it her fault that she fails to resist this oppression. But
her lack of blameworthiness for failing to fulfill this obligation does not mean
the obligation itself goes away. It just means she should not be held morally
responsible for her failure to fulfill it.
The erosion analogy shows that it might be compatible with an obligation
to protect one’s rational nature to occasionally fail to resist individual instances of
oppression that would end up harming one’s rational nature were one to fail to
resist them all the time. But I think it is clear that if the erosion analogy is apt it
gets us a really quite limited amount of latitude in refraining from action: because
rational nature is so fundamentally valuable one needs to be very careful to not let
the corrosive effects of oppression accumulate. This discussion emphasizes just
how little latitude in refraining from action this duty should permit. Because the
most compelling cases that seem to require latitude in refraining from action are
actually addressed by the possibility of internal resistance, even if this duty does
permit some of this latitude there is not much reason to want it to permit much of
it. Still, because there are many different ways to protect our rational capacities in
oppressive contexts, and thus many different actions that count as fulfilling the
obligation to protect them, this obligation permits a great deal of latitude in which
action to take.
VII. Conclusion
My goal here, remember, was to show that oppressed people have an obliga-
tion to resist their oppression. I set out to do this by first defending the Kantian
tenet that says that the fundamental moral importance of our rational nature means
we have an obligation to protect it from harm. Then I showed how the systemic
harms of oppression can damage people’s rational natures, and showed how this
often happens in nearly invisible increments. And so, I argued, under oppressive
social circumstances the obligation to protect our rational nature translates into an
obligation to resist oppression. And, if we understand this obligation as one that
permits different kinds of latitude in action, we need not worry that imposing it on
oppressed people would be too onerous.
40 Carol Hay
For constructive feedback on various versions of this paper, I am grateful to
Louise Antony, Timothy Schroeder, Sigrún Svavarsdóttir, two anonymous review-
ers, and to audiences at the Society for Analytical Feminism’s conference at the
University of Kentucky, the University of Dayton’s Richard R. Baker Colloquium
on the topic of “Building Coalitions Across Difference,” and the Workshop on
Gender and Philosophy at MIT. Readers interested in pursuing further the issues
discussed in this paper should review the symposium on the responsibility to resist
oppression in the Journal of Social Philosophy 41 (2010): 1–49. This paper was
accepted for publication prior to the publication of this issue of the journal; I
regret not being able to integrate here the interesting discussions provided there
by Bernard Boxill, Jean Harvey, Thomas Hill, and Sarah Buss.
Notes
1There might be other ways of explaining the results of this survey; I am merely speculating that
the Bengali women held these beliefs about their relative worth. But, given that at least some
oppressed people do internalize their oppression in this way—and, as we will see, this phenom-
enon is so ubiquitous that most people internalize at least some aspects of their oppression—this
speculation is unfortunately neither unreasonable nor unrealistic. There is a philosophical issue
here, I contend, regardless of whether my speculations are right in this particular case. 2Amartya Sen, “Gender Inequality and Theories of Justice,” in Women, Culture, and Development, ed.
Jonathan Glover and Martha Nussbaum (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995), 259–74, and
Amartya Sen, “Rights and Capabilities,” in Resources, Values, and Development (Oxford: Black-
well, 1984), 307–24. For an influential discussion of these results, see Martha Nussbaum, Women
and Human Development: The Capabilities Approach (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
2000), 139. 3According to the definition I favor, an individual is oppressed if and only if (i) she is unjustly harmed
in a group-specific way, where this sort of harm has occurred if and only if (a) she is harmed in
virtue of being a member of a group, G; and, (b) on balance, members of G have a relative lack
of social esteem, power, or authority; and, (c) on balance, members of another group, G*, benefit
from her being harmed; and, (d) this harm is unfair, unearned, or illegitimate in some other way;
and, (ii) this harm is part of a structural and systemic network of social institutions. Furthermore,
while the harms of oppression are most often the unintentional result of an interrelated system of
social norms and institutions, some oppressive harms are the result of the intentional actions of an
individual person. (Sally Haslanger’s distinction between structural and agent oppression captures
these two kinds of oppression. See Sally Haslanger, “Oppressions: Racial and Other,” Racism,
Philosophy and Mind: Philosophical Explanations of Racism and Its Implications, ed. Michael
Levine and Tamas Pataki. (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2007). 4This is not to suggest that it is worse to fail to resist one’s own oppression than it is to oppress others.
I mean only to argue that it is a moral failing to fail to resist one’s own oppression. 5For example, Ann Cudd argues that what is wrong when women acquiesce in their own oppression is
that doing so strengthens sexist institutions that harm all women. But Cudd resists the conclusion
that the oppressed have a general obligation to resist their own oppression; she argues that in many
cases resisting one’s oppression is supererogatory. The only time someone who is oppressed does
have an obligation to resist her oppression, Cudd thinks, is when she has chosen to acquiesce in
her oppression and this acquiescence harms other members of her oppressed group. See Ann
Cudd, Analyzing Oppression (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006), 198–200. 6Thanks to an anonymous reviewer for this second point.
7Most notably, Stephen Darwall, Robin Dillon, and Thomas Hill have all defended conceptions of
self-respect that are heavily influenced by Kant. See Steven Darwall, “Two Kinds of Respect,”
The Obligation to Resist Oppression 41
Ethics 88 (1977): 36–49; Robin Dillon, “Self-Respect: Moral, Emotional, Political,” Ethics 107
(1997): 226–39; Robin Dillon, “How to Lose Your Self-Respect,” American Philosophical Quar-
terly 29 (1992): 125–39; Robin Dillon, “Toward a Feminist Conception of Self-Respect,” Hypatia
7 (1992): 52–69; Thomas Hill, “Self-Respect Reconsidered,” Tulane Studies in Philosophy 31
(1982): 129–37; and Thomas Hill, “Servility and Self-Respect,” The Monist 57 (1973): 87–104. 8 Immanuel Kant Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals, 1785, ed. Mary Gregor (Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 1998). “G” in parenthetical documentation hereafter refers to this
work. 9Hill, “Servility and Self-Respect.” Cited earlier in note 7.
10 Ibid., 95.
11One objection to this line of argument is that if oppression harms rational nature, and if the value of
rational nature is what grounds the obligation to resist oppression, then a person whose rational
nature has been harmed by oppression will at some point no longer be obligated to resist it. The
worry is that failing to fulfill the obligation to protect one’s rational nature from the harms of
oppression might actually vitiate future instances of this obligation. I respond to this concern in
another paper, where I defend a novel interpretation of Kant’s views on the relation between the
value we have and the respect we are owed. I argue, contra the received view among Kant scholars,
that the feature in virtue of which someone has intrinsic value is not the same feature in virtue of
which she is owed the respect that constrains how she may be treated (by herself or others). So,
even though someone who fails to resist her own oppression fails to respect herself in the right
way, and even though this moral failing does make her lose a certain kind of value, her obligations
to respect herself and to resist her oppression do not go away. (See my “Respect-Worthiness and
Dignity,” currently under review.) 12Elizabeth Anderson, “Should Feminists Reject Rational Choice Theory?” in A Mind of One’s
Own: Feminist Essays on Reason and Objectivity, ed. Louise Antony and Charlotte Witt (Boulder,
CO: Westview, 2002), 369–97. 13 Ibid., 385.
14 Ibid., 386.
15 In characterizing rationality as a matter that concerns not merely the means one uses to achieve one’s
ends, but also what one’s ends themselves are, I am committing myself to the view that certain
ends are intrinsically rational and others intrinsically irrational. For an account of how this sort
of reason can be involved in determining what ends we set, see Henry Richardson, Practical
Reasoning About Final Ends (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997). One implication of
committing myself to this view is that my account of rationality is set apart from those that would
equate rationality with adaptive behavior. Such adaptive accounts of rationality would suggest that
members of the oppressed act rationally when they “play along” with their own subjugation. The
ethical point I would like to advance, however, maintains that such complicity can compromise our
rationality by undermining our capacity to set ends for ourselves and to pursue these ends in a
purposeful manner. 16There is evidence to suggest that various factors that bear on people’s capacity for rational
deliberation—things such as people’s talents and their ability to see the value in delayed
gratification—are highly dependent on education or training in one way or another. See, for
example, Janet Currie, “Early Childhood Education Programs,” Journal of Economic Perspectives
15 (2001): 213–38; Janet Currie and Duncan Thomas, “Does Head Start Make a Difference?”
American Economic Review 85 (1995): 341–64; Edward Zigler and Sally J. Styfco, ed., The Head
Start Debates, (Baltimore: Brookes, 2004). For evidence that what is generally thought of as inborn
talent is often actually highly socially determined, see Karl Anders Ericsson., ed., Cambridge
Handbook of Expertise and Expert Performance (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006). 17For example, performing the kind of work that women are traditionally held responsible for—work
such as routine, repetitive housework—is associated with higher rates of depression. See, for
example, Rosalind C. Barnett and Yu-Chu C. Shen, “Gender, High- and Low-Schedule-Control
Housework Tasks, and Psychological Distress,” Journal of Family Issues 18 (1997): 403–28;
42 Carol Hay
Jennifer Glass and Tetshushi Fukimoto, “Housework, Paid Work, and Depression among Hus-
bands and Wives,” Journal of Health and Social Behavior 35 (1994): 179–91; Reed W. Larsen,
Maryse H. Richards, and Maureen Perry-Jenkins, “Divergent Worlds: The Daily Emotional
Experience of Mothers and Fathers in the Domestic and Public Spheres,” Journal of Personality
and Social Psychology 67 (1994): 1034–46. For discussions of how being oppressed increases
one’s likelihood of institutionalization, see, for example, Robert T. Roth and Judith Lerner,
“Sex-Based Discrimination in the Mental Institutionalization of Women,” California Law Review
62 (1974): 789–815; Licia Carlson, “Cognitive Ableism and Disability Studies: Feminist Reflec-
tions on the History of Mental Retardation,” Hypatia 16 (2001): 124–46; Licia Carlson, The Faces
of Intellectual Disability: Philosophical Reflections (Bloomington: Indiana University Press,
2009). 18For an account of the psychological effects of internalized sexist oppression, see Sandra Bartky, “On
Psychological Oppression,” in Femininity and Domination: Studies in the Phenomenology of
Oppression (New York: Routledge, 1990), 22–32. 19For a discussion of how the phenomenon of sour grapes can affect one’s capacity for rational
deliberation, see John Elster, Sour Grapes: Studies in the Subversion of Rationality (Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 1983). 20See, for example, Thomas Nagel, The Possibility of Altruism (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University
Press, 1970). 21Alison Wylie, “Why Standpoint Matters,” in Science and Other Cultures: Issues in Philosophies of
Science and Technology, ed. Robert Figueroa and Sandra Harding (London: Routledge, 2003), 339. 22Thanks to members of the audiences at the University of Dayton’s 2008 Richard R. Baker Collo-
quium on the topic of “Building Coalitions Across Difference,” and the Society for Analytical
Feminism’s 2008 conference at the University of Kentucky, for raising versions of this objection. 23Marxist standpoint theorists, for example, argued that one’s social position with respect to material
labor necessarily determines one’s epistemic position, and the marginalized position of the
proletariat gives them epistemic advantages over the bourgeoisie because their ability to under-
stand their exploitation is not clouded by a motivation to maintain a status quo from which they
do not benefit. Feminist standpoint theorists such as Nancy Hartsock, for example, argued that
women’s experiences surrounding childrearing and other forms of domestic labor result in
epistemic perspectives that are systematically different between men and women, and that
women’s is one that universally confers epistemic advantages in understanding patriarchal insti-
tutions. See Nancy Hartsock, “The Feminist Standpoint: Developing the Ground for a Specifically
Feminist Historical Materialism,” in Discovering Reality: Feminist Perspectives on Epistemology,
Metaphysics, Methodology, and the Philosophy of Science, ed. Sandra Harding and Merrill
Hintikka (Dordrecht, The Netherlands: D. Reidel, 1983), 283–310. 24Ann Cudd’s discussion of how an individual worker’s actions will not count as striking unless others
join her is an example of this sort of case. See Cudd, Analyzing Oppression, 199. Cited earlier in
note 5. 25For a discussion of how the reality of psychological oppression can be systematically obscured from
its victims, see Bartky, “On Psychological Oppression.” Cited earlier in note 18. 26Anita Superson, for example, argues that women who acquiesce in their oppression by conforming
to patriarchal gender roles ought not to be blamed for this acquiescence because blaming them
would be tantamount to blaming the victim. See Anita Superson, “Right-Wing Women: Causes,
Choices, and Blaming the Victim,” Journal of Social Philosophy 24 (1993): 40–61. Jean Harvey
provides a nuanced discussion of when blaming a victim of oppression is morally objectionable.
See Jean Harvey, Civilized Oppression (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 1999). 27To be clear, insofar as the duty to resist one’s oppression is a duty to protect one’s rational nature,
I do not think Kant himself would characterize this duty as imperfect. In the Doctrine of Virtue,
for example, he says that we have a perfect duty to ourselves to preserve our animal nature, that
is, to avoid “depriving oneself (permanently or temporarily) of one’s capacity for the natural (and
so indirectly for the moral) use of one’s powers (DV 6:421).” Nevertheless, while Kant himself
The Obligation to Resist Oppression 43
would characterize this duty as perfect, I hope to make a case for a Kantian to be able to
characterize it as imperfect. See Immanuel Kant The Metaphysics of Morals, 1797, ed. Mary
Gregor (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996). “DV” in parenthetical documentation
hereafter refers to this work. 28Kant says imperfect duties leave “a [wiggle-room] (latitudo) for free choice in following (complying
with) the law, that is, that the law cannot specify precisely in what way one is to act and how much
one is to do by the action for an end that is also a duty” (DV 6:390). 29Thomas Hill’s account of the different kinds of latitude that could be permitted by Kant’s imperfect
duties is probably the best accepted in the literature. The two kinds of latitude I focus on here are
both articulated by Hill. See Thomas Hill, “Kant on Imperfect Duty and Supererogation,” in
Dignity and Practical Reason in Kant’s Moral Theory (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press,
1992), 147–75. 30There are a number of reasons why this way of resisting oppression could be problematic. One is that
attempts at reappropriation might just reinforce derogatory stereotypes. Another is that it might be
difficult to tell whether someone has really reappropriated derogatory stereotypes, or whether they
have merely internalized (and thus endorsed) them. A third is that the use of epithets like these
might be harmful to other members of the oppressed groups who are either not aware of, or take
issue with, the ironic way in which the terms are being used. Thanks to an anonymous reviewer
for these suggestions. 31Especially given that I defend the possibility that resistance can be internal as well as external, you
might find it surprising that my account makes no reference to the concept of autonomy. After all,
protecting our capacity to act rationally amounts to protecting our capacity to act autonomously,
and there is a vast philosophical literature that discusses this concept. (Thanks to an anonymous
reviewer for pressing me on this.) Given how wide and varied this literature is, given that the
concept of autonomy is open to a dizzying number of definitions and interpretations in this
literature, and given that I think my arguments here can be made convincingly without opening
this particular can of worms, I have chosen to avoid discussing the concept in this paper. 32 I have discussed this example elsewhere as well. See my “Whether to Ignore Them and Spin: Moral
Obligations to Resist Sexual Harassment,” Hypatia 20 (2005): 94–108. There, I argued that
women have an obligation to confront the men who sexually harass them. This paper was a
preliminary exploration of some of the main issues that motivate this project; as should be
apparent, I now think the conclusion I defended there is wrong on various points of detail. 33David Foster Wallace, “Getting Away from Already Being Pretty Much Away from It All,” in A
Supposedly Fun Thing I’ll Never Do Again, ed. (Boston: Little, Brown, 1997), 83–137. 34 Ibid., 99.
35 Ibid., 101.
36Marilyn Frye illustrates the systematic nature of sexist oppression with an analogy to a birdcage;
she points out that if you only ever look at a birdcage one wire at a time, you will never see how
such a structure could limit the mobility of its occupant. You will just assume that the bird could
pick itself up, dust itself off, and fly around the wire in its way. But, if you were to step back and
look at all of the wires of a birdcage together, you would see an interconnected system of
barriers that function collectively to restrict the bird’s freedom. Analogously, it can be hard to
recognize people’s oppression if you focus exclusively on any particular social, political, or
economic institution or even if you focus exclusively on any particular restriction or frustration
or instance of harm. Taken by themselves, these sorts of things can seem innocuous—not really
capable of limiting someone’s freedom in terribly profound or important ways. You will just
assume that any given person should be able to pick herself up, dust herself off, and get on with
her life in just the way anyone unlucky enough to be faced with a random setback would. Frye’s
analogy suggests that it is only when you step back and look at the system of social, political,
and economic institutions as a whole that you can see how it functions to oppress people. See
Marilyn Frye, “Oppression,” in The Politics of Reality (Freedom, CA: Crossing Press, 1983),
4–5.
44 Carol Hay
37The concern that oppressive social systems can be perpetuated because they afford oppressed people
some (usually inauthentic) benefits has been raised by Simone de Beauvoir, among others. See
Simone de Beauvoir, The Second Sex, trans. H. M. Parshely (Harmondsworth, UK: Penguin, 1984
[1949]). 38Anita Superson, for example, has argued that expecting women to recognize the full extent of their
oppression is to expect them to be “visionary.” This is an unreasonable and unfair expectation,
Superson argues, because sexism can infect virtually every aspect of their lives in a patriarchal
society. See Anita Superson, “Right-Wing Women,” cited earlier in note 26, and “Deformed
Desires and Informed Desire Tests,” Hypatia 20 (2005): 109–26. 39To be clear: this is an epistemic point about whether we can know that internal resistance has taken
place, not a metaphysical point about whether internal resistance has in fact taken place. 40Wallace, “Getting Away,” 101.
41 Ibid.
42Thanks to two anonymous reviewers for pressing me to answer versions of this question.
43This insistence might make the obligation to resist an unfair one, but, as I have argued elsewhere, an
unfair obligation is an obligation nevertheless. See my “Whether to Ignore Them and Spin: Moral
Obligations to Resist Sexual Harassment,” cited earlier in note 32.
The Obligation to Resist Oppression 45
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